REESE   LIBRARY 

P 

OF   THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 


MAR   141893 

^Accessions  No.  &0  6"Q  Lfr     Claxs  No* 


MANUAL 


OP 


ENGLISH  RHETORIC. 


BY 
A.    D.    HEPBURN, 

PROFESSOR  IN  DA  VIDSON  COLLEGE,  N.   C. 


NEW-YORK     •:•     CINCINNATI     •:•     CHICAGO 
AMERICAN    BOOK    COMPANY 

FROM  THE  PRESS  OF 
VAN  ANTWERP,  BRAGG,  A  CO. 


COPYRIGHT,  1875,  BY  WILSON,  HINKLE  &  CO. 


ECLECTIC  PRESS: 

VAN  ANTWERP,  BRAGG  ft  CO., 
CINCINNATI. 


PREFACE. 


TX  preparing  this  Manual,  I  have  had  in  view  the  wants  of 
classes  in  High  Schools  and  Colleges.  I  have  not  thought 
it  advisable  to  introduce  into  a  text-book  discussions  of  topics 
that  belong  properly  to  Psychology,  Logic,  and  ^Esthetics,  or 
to  controvert,  or  even  mention,  opposing  views.  The  prin- 
ciples and  rules  are  stated  briefly,  and  exemplified:  the  in- 
structor can  expand,  modify,  and  apply  them  according  to 
the  requirements  of  his  classes. 

I  am  very  largely  indebted  to  the  Lectures  on  the  English 
Language  by  Hon.  Geo.  P.  Marsh,  to  Dr.  J.  K.  F.  Einne's 
voluminous  Theory  of  Style,  to  Dr.  Karl  Becker's  philo- 
sophical treatise  upon  German  Style,  and  to  Vinet's  Homi- 
letics.  I  have  also  freely  used  the  results  of  the  labors  of 
many  other  writers.  That  a  distinct  acknowledgment  of  my 
indebtedness  so  seldom  appears  in  the  body  of  the  work  does 
not  proceed  from  any  wish  to  claim  as  my  own  what  is  an- 
other's. It  was  part  of  my  original  plan  to  give  in  each 

section  full  references  to  the  various  works  in  which  its  sub- 
On) 


iv  PKEFACE. 

ject  is  treated  of,  but  it  was  found  that  this  could  not  be 
carried  out  with  satisfactory  thoroughness  without  adding  too 
much  to  the  size  of  the  volume.  And,  indeed,  the  success  of 
the  few  attempts  that  have  been  made  to  incorporate  into  a 
text-book  the  literature  of  the  subject,  has  not  been  such  as 
to  encourage  imitation., 


CONTENTS. 


INTRODUCTION. 

Definition,  Aim  and  Method  of  Study,  Distribution,  of  Rhetwic. 
SECTION.  PAGE 

1.  Definition  of  Rhetoric 13 

2.  Prose  distinguished  from  Poetry 13 

3.  The  Expression  of  thought  subject  to  Laws    .        .        .        .14 

4.  Aim  of  the  study  of  Rhetoric 15 

5.  Systematic  Rhetoric  must  neither  be  neglected  nor  studied 

exclusively         .  16 

6.  Original  Composition 17 

7.  Exercises  in  which  the  matter  is  supplied :  Paraphrase.     Ab- 

stracts and  Abridgments.     Translation          .        .        .        .17 

8.  Study  of  Models.     What  to  study.     How  to  study         .        .    21 

9.  Distribution  of  Rhetoric.     Different  kinds  of  Matter.     Differ- 

ent kinds  of  Discourse.      This  work  distributed  into  Four 
Parts  .  ...  .....    23 


PART  I. 

THE  PROCESSES  CONVERSANT  ABOUT  THE  MATTER  OF  A  DISCOURSE. 

PRELIMINARY. 

10.  What  are  the  processes   conversant   about   the   matter  of   a 

Discourse  ?  25 

11.  The  main  and  the  subordinate  ideas  distinguished.     Distribu- 

tion of  Part  First 26 

CHAPTER  I. 

The  Subject  of  a  Discourse. 

12.  The  Subject  either  given  or  left  to  the  writer's  choice.     Forms 

in  which  given.     Rules  to  be  observed 27 

13.  The  Subject  chosen  by  the  Writer.    Relation  of  the  Subject 

to  the  Writer.    Relation  of  the  Subject  to  the  Reader         .    28 

(v) 


Ti  CONTENTS. 

SECT.  PAGE 

14.  Determination  of  the  Subject 30 

15.  The  Theme.     Its  requisites 30 

16.  Hie  Title.     Rules  for  choosing 33 

CHAPTER  II. 

Invention. 

17.  Invention   denned.      Considered   as  a   power  of   the  Mind. 

Means  of  improving  it.     Invention  differs  from  investiga- 
tion      34 

18.  Meditation.    What  included  in?         .        .        .        .        .        .36 

19.  Recollection 37 

20.  Selection.     Result  of  the  process 38 

21.  Systematic  Meditation.    Topics.     Their  utility         .        .        .40 

22.  Reading  as  an  aid  to  invention.     Method  of  Reading       .        »    41 

CHAPTER  III. 
Disposition. 

23.  Disposition :    Nature  of.    Importance  of 43 

24.  Preparation  of   the  Plan.      Organic    Parts  of    a    Discourse. 

What  contained  in  the  Plan.    Necessity  of  preparing  one   .    44 

25.  The  laws  of  Disposition,  general  and  special      .        .        .        .46 

26.  The  Nature  and  Purpose  of  the  Introduction     .         .        .        .46 

27.  Contents  of  the  Introduction.     Its  structure.    When  to  be 

prepared     .        . 48 

28.  The  Body  of  the  Discourse 49 

29.  Two   methods  of   communicating   thought.     The  Anatytic. 

The  Synthetic 50 

30.  Comparative  advantages  of  the  two 53 

31.  General  Rules  for  the  Disposition  of  the  Body  of  a  Discourse.    54 

32.  The  Conclusion.     An  essential  part.     Qualities  of    .        .        .55 

33.  Transitions.    Essential  qualities  of.     How  found      .        .        .56 

CHAPTER  IV. 

Amplification. 

34.  Nature  of  Amplification.     Importance  of 58 

35.  Means  of  Amplification.     Enumeration.     Examples.    Causes 

and  Effects.     Comparison.     Combination  of  several  means. 
Accessory  ideas 60 

36.  Rules  of  Amplification 63 


CONTENTS.  vii 

PART  II. 

STYLE. 

CHAPTER  I. 

The  Qualities  of  Prose  Style. 
SECT.  .  PAGE 

37.  Nature  and  conditions  of  Style.    Its  importance.     Disregard 

of,  among  English  Prose  Writers 66 

38.  Fundamental  qualities  of  Prose  Style.     Propriety    .         .        .    68 

39.  Perspicuity.    Spencer's  law  of  economy  of  attention      .        .    69 

40.  Vivacity.     Beaut  y •        •        .71 

41.  The  English  language  as  to  power  of  expression       .        .        .72 

42.  Topics  to  be  treated  of  in  the  Doctrine  of  Style        ...    73 

CHAPTER  II. 
The  Choice  of  Words. 

43.  Importance  and  difficulty  of  a  proper  choice  of  words  .        .    74 

44.  National  use.     Barbarisms.     Provincialisms      .        .  .        .75 

45.  Present  use.    Obsolete  words.    Neologisms       .        .  .        .79 

46.  Moral  Dignity.    Direct  expressions  of  what  is  base.  Wan- 

ton misapplications  designating  moral  qualities.    Vulgar- 
isms      83 

47.  Propriety.     Accuracy.     Congruity 86 

48.  Conclusion    .  .  92 


CHAPTER  III. 

Figures  of  Speech. 


\ 


49.  Figures  of  Speech  in   general.     Defined.    Are  natural  and 

necessary.    Their  classification 92 

50.  Figures  of  Intuition 94 

51.  Tropes  in  general 94 

52.  Synecdoche .        .95 

53.  Metonymy.    Antonomasia 97 

54.  Metaphor.     Three  kinds  of.     Its  force.     Rules  for  its  use         .    98 

55.  Allegory.    Parable.     Fable 105 

56.  Personification.     Cautions  with  respect  to  using  it   .         .        .  107 

57.  Ideal  Presence.     1.  The  present  tense  used  for  a  past  or  fut- 

ure.    2.  Vision.    3.  Apostrophe.    4.  Sermocination    .        .  108 


viii  CONTENTS. 

SECT.  PAGE 

58.  Simile.     Different  orders  of Ill 

59.  Allusion 113 

60.  Epithets 114 

61.  Figures  of  Emphasis 116 

62.  Interrogation.     Repetition.    Exclamation          ....  116 

63.  Hyperbole.     Irony        .        . 118 

64.  Climax 119 

65.  Antithesis 120 


CHAPTER  IV. 

The  Sentence. 

66.  Sentence  defined.    Division  of  Sentences 121 

67.  Characteristics  of  the  English  Sentence 122 

68.  The  Structure  of  Sentences 124 

69.  Correctness 125 

70.  Unity 126 

71.  Clearness 130 

72.  Precision.     1.  Tautology.     2.  Pleonasm.     3.  Verbosity    .        .  136 

73.  Energy.      1.    Inversion.      2.    Connectives:    Asyndeton    and 

Polysyndeton.     3.  Periods  and  Loose  Sentences    .        .        .  139 

74.  Melody 145 


CHAPTER  V. 
The  Paragraph. 

75.  Paragraph  defined         .........  146 

76.  The  Structure  of  Paragraphs 147 

77.  Unity.     Continuity 147 

78.  Proportion.     Variety 150 

79.  Announcing  the  Theme 153 

80.  Examples  illustrating  the  foregoing  rules 153 


CHAPTER  VI. 

Division  of  Style. 

81.  Recapitulation 156 

82.  Differences  of  Style 157 

83.  The  Simple  or  Lower  Style 158 

84.  The  Grand  or  Higher  Style 159 


CONTENTS.  ix 

SECT.  PAGE 

85.  The  Middle  Style 160 

86.  Caution 160 

87.  Application  of  the  Principles  of  General  Rhetoric    .        .        .161 


PART  III. 

THE  ELEMENTARY  FORMS  OP-DISCOURSE. 

88.  Preliminary.     What  are  the  Elementary  Forms  of  Discourse  ?  1G2 

CHAPTER  I. 

Description. 

89.  Definition  of  Description  :  its  objects 163 

90.  Requisites  of  a  good  Description 163 

91.  Difficulty  of  the  art  of  Description 164 

92.  Rules  of  Description 164 

93.  Disposition  of  details 166 

94.  Auxiliaries.     Rules  of  Expression 167 

95.  Description  of  Natural  and  Artificial  Products.    Physical  Ap- 

pearances     167 

96.  Mental  states.     Characters.    General  Characters        .        .        .  169 

CHAPTER  II. 

Narration. 

97.  Nature  and  aim  of  Narration 171 

98.  Selection  of  particulars 172 

.99.     Disposition  of  the  incidents 173 

100.  Parts  of  a  Narration 174 

CHAPTER  III. 

Exposition. 

101.  Exposition  defined  :   its  objects  and  aim 176 

102.  Verbal  explication 177 

103.  Logical  explication.     Definition 177 

104.  Division.    The  Principle  of  Division.     Laws  of  .        .  179 


x  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

105.  Exposition  of  a  Notion  in  its  relations 181 

106.  Additional  instruments  of  exposition. 

1.  Examples.     2.  Analogy       . 182 

107.  A  scheme  of  Exposition  of  a  Notion 183 

108.  Exposition  of  a  Proposition        .        .        .        .  .        .  184 

CHAPTER  IV. 

Argument. 

109.  Argument :  what,  and  what  implied  in.     Nature  and  degrees 

of  Conviction.    Argumentation  either  Positive  or  Negative.  185 

110.  Confirmation        .        .        . 186 

111.  Preparation  of  the  Question.     Its  importance.     Mode  of  pre- 

paring the  question 187 

112.  Invention  of  Arguments 190 

113.  Direct  and  Indirect  Reasoning.     Conditions  of  the  validity 

of  Indirect  Reasoning.     Comparative  advantages  of  the  two 
methods 190 

114.  Deductive  Reasoning.     Inductive  Reasoning.     1.  Induction 

in  the  limited  sense  of  the  word.     2.  Analogy.     Example. 

3.  Signs 192 

115.  Extrinsic  Arguments.     1.  Testimony.     2.  Authority      .        .  195 

116.  Selection  of  Arguments 197 

117.  Arrangement  of  Arguments.     Analytic  and  Synthetic  order. 

Principal  and  Subordinate  Arguments.     Extrinsic  and  In- 
trinsic Arguments 198 

118.  The  Syllogistic  and  the  popular  mode  of  reasoning         .        .  199 

119.  Refutation 200 

120.  Rules  of  Refutation 202 

121.  Scheme  and  Topics  of  an  Argument 203 


PART  IV. 

THE  PRINCIPAL  FORMS  OF  PROSE. 

122.  Preliminary.     Several  divisions  of  Prose  ....  206 

CHAPTER  I. 
The  Dialogue  and  Epistolary  Prose. 

123.  Introductory 207 

1241    Dialogue.    Characters.    Subjects       .        .        .        .        .        .  207 


CONTENTS.  xl 

SECT.  PAGE 

125.  Requisites  of  a  Dialogue 208 

126.  Epistolary  Prose 209 

127.  Its  general  characteristics 209 


CHAPTER  II. 
Didactic  Prose. 

128.  What  included  in  Didactic  Prose.    Its  forms   ....  210 

129.  Scientific  Prose 211 

130.  Use  of  general  terms.     Technical  terms.      Sources  of  tech- 

nical terms.    Under  what  conditions  to  be  used    .        .        .  212 

131.  Use  of  Figurative  language 214 

132.  Kinds  of  Scientific  Prose.     1.  Text-books.     2.  Disquisitions.  214 

133.  Popular  Scientific  Prose 215 

134.  Criticism 216 


CHAPTER  III. 

Historical  Prose. 

135.  What  is  comprehended  in  History 217 

136.  Wrong  methods  of  Historical  composition        ....  217 

137.  Genuine  Historical  method 218 

138.  Essential  qualities.     1.   Truth.     2.    Local  color.     3.  Signifi- 

cance of  facts  exhibited.    4.  Completeness     ....  219 

139.  Historical   Arrangement.     Chronological   Method.      Topical 

Method.    Pragmatic  Method.     Natural  Method    .        .        .222 

140.  Distribution  into  Periods 225 

141.  Introduction  and  Conclusion 226 

142.  Description.     Reflections 226 

143.  Essential  qualities  of  Historical  Style 227 

144.  Division   of  History.     Universal   History.     Special  History. 

Biography.    Special   Histories  of  Institutions,  Industries, 
Arts,  etc 228 


CHAPTER  IV. 

Oratorical  Prose. 

1.45.     Oratorical  Discourse  defined 231 

146.  Analysis  of  Persuasion ,  231 

147.  Theme  of  an  Oratorical  Discourse 232 


xii  CONTENTS. 

SECT.  PAGB 

148.  Description.    Narration.    Exposition.     Argumentation          .  232 

149.  Exhortation.     On  what  does  the  power  of  moving  the  Pas- 

sions depend?    236 

150.  Rules  for  Exhortation.     Allaying  hostile  feelings  .        .        .238 

151.  Oratorical  Disposition.     Parts  of  an  Oratorical  Discourse        .239 

152.  Exordium.    Sources  of 240 

153.  Qualities  of  an  Exordium 242 

154.  Body  of  the  Speech.     Announcement  of   the  Theme.     An- 

nouncement of  the  Plan 243 

155.  Special  rules  for  arranging  the  Arguments  and  Motives  .        .  245 

156.  Peroration.     Qualities  of 250 

157.  Characteristics  of  Oratorical   Style.     1.    Direct  Address.     2. 

Popularity.    3.  Simplicity.    4.  Dignity.     5.  Energy     .        .  253 

158.  Different  kinds  of  Oratory 260 

159.  Political  Oratory 260 

160.  Parliamentary    Oratory.      Its  essential    qualities.      Popular 

Oratory 260 

161.  Judicial  or  Forensic  Oratory.     Compared  with  Political         .  264 

162.  Means  of  accomplishing  its  end 267 

163.  Its  style 269 

164.  Sacred  Oratory     ..........  269 

165.  Instruction  an  essential  requisite 272 

166.  Religious  exhortation 273 

167.  Familiarity 274 

168.  Religious  Diction 275 

169.  Two  kinds  of  religious  oratorical  Discourse.    The  Sermon. 

The  Homily 276 

170.  Recapitulation 278 

171.  Miscellaneous  Addresses     . 278 

172.  Conclusion 279 


ENGLISH  RHETORIC. 


INTBODUCTIOtf. 

DEFINITION,  AIM  AND  METHOD  OF  STUDY,  DISTRIBUTION, 
OF  RHETORIC. 

Section  1.  Definition  of  Rhetoric. — Elietoric  is  the  Sci- 
ence of  the  Laws  and  Forms  of  Prose.  It  investigates  the 
method  and  general  principles  to  which  every  discourse  must 
conform  that  is  designed  to  instruct,  convince,  or  persuade. 

2.  Prose  distinguished  from  Poetry, — The  characteristic 
marks  of  prose  as  distinguished  from  poetry  are  the  follow- 
ing: 

1.  Poetry  belongs  to  what  are  called  the  fine  arts, — so 
called  because  their  end  is  not  any  practical  or  material 
utility,  but  the  expression  of  the  beautiful.  Its  aim  is  not  to 
communicate  knowledge  or  to  influence  the  will,  but  to  rep- 
resent the  products  of  the  creative  imagination  in  their  appro- 
priate forms  in  language.  It  accomplishes  all  that  can  be 
demanded  of  it  when  it  suits  the  idea  to  the  form  and  the 
form  to  the  idea.  The  beauty  of  the  representation,  or  form, 
is  thus  the  ultimate  end  of  poetry. 

Prose,  on  the  contrary,  strives  to  accomplish  some  outward 
end.  It  does  not  describe  or  prove  merely  for  the  sake  of 

(13) 


14  INTRODUCTION.  Sec.  2 

describing  or  proving,  but  in  order  to  influence  the  minds  and 
wills  of  the  readers  and  hearers.  The  discourse  is  thus  but  a 
means  of  producing  certain  effects,  and  owes  its  origin  to  the 
design  of  producing  them.  The  ends  of  prose  are  reducible 
to  three : 

(1)  To  explain  something  not  known  or  not  distinctly  com- 
prehended 5 

(2)  To  convince  of  the  truth  of  some  proposition  that  is 
either  doubted  or  disbelieved  j 

(3)  To  persuade  to  a  determinate  course  of  action. 

2.  Accordingly,  while  the  poet  yields  to  the  free  play  of  the 
imagination  and  emotions  in  clothing  his  idea  in  its  suitable 
form,  the  prose  writer  is  compelled  to  submit  to  many  re- 
straints imposed  by  outward  circumstances.     He  is  obliged  to 
consult  the  condition,  requirements,  and  character  of  those  for 
whom  he  writes,  and  to  accommodate  his  discourse  to  them. 

3.  Conformity  to  actual  facts  is  not  required  in  poetry :    it 
idealizes  the  actual,  and  represents  it  in  vivid  images  to  the 
imagination.      But  in  prose  the  notions  and  judgments  that 
are  communicated  must  have,  or  seem  to  have,  the  character 
of  real  truth,  and  must  be  exhibited  with  clearness  and  method 
to  the  understanding.     Prose,  it  is  true,  appeals  to  the  imagi- 
nation also,  but  only  to  give  greater  clearness  and  force  to  its 
statements,  arid  obtain  for  them  a  readier  acceptance. 

4.  To  awaken  the  emotion  of  the  beautiful  is  the  supreme 
end  of  poetry,  but  only  a  subordinate  one  of  prose.     In  the 
latter,  the  purpose  which  the  discourse  has  to  serve  is  of  pri- 
mary importance ;  when  the  gratification  of  the  taste  comes  in 
conflict  with  this,  it  must  be  sacrificed. 

5.  Verse  is  incompatible  with  the  nature  and  aim  of  prose  5 
while,  if  not  essential  to  poetry,  it  is  peculiar  to  it. 

3.  The  Expression  of  thought  subject  to  Laws. — The 
process  of  combining  and  expressing  thoughts  is  subject  to 
fixed  laws  inherent  in  the  mind,  which  we  are  at  liberty  to 
violate,  but,  if  we  violate  them,  the  discourse  will  fail  to 
realize  its  end.  We  follow  these  laws  unconsciously;  as  in 


Sec.  4  INTRODUCTION.  15 

thinking  wo  obey  the  laws  of  logic,  and  in  speaking,  the  laws 
of  general  grammar,  without  having  present  to  our  minds 
the  principles  we  put  in  practice. 

We  can  ascertain  these  laws  by  reflecting  on  the  operations 
of  our  minds,  and  by  analyzing  the  works  of  eminent  writers, 
and  can  reduce  them  to  a  system  which  has  a  valid  claim  to 
the  name  of  Science. 

The  exposition  of  the  laws  of  the  expression  of  thought  in 
language  constitutes  the  Science  or  Theory  of  Discourse.  It 
is  divided  into  two  special  theories — Ehetoric  and  Poetic. 
These  theories  have  much  in  common,  but  their  points  of 
difference  are  so  numerous  and  marked  that  they  ought  to  be 
studied  separately. 

REMARK. — The  term  discourse,  in  its  widest  signification,  denotes  tlie 
expression  in  language  of  a  series  of  thoughts  combined  into  a  coherent 
whole.  In  this  sense  it  includes  all  kinds  of  literary  composition,  of 
whatever  extent,  whether  designed  to  be  read  or  to  be  heard.  It  will  be 
used  in  this  very  general  sense  in  the  present  treatise. 

For  the  sake  of*  brevity  the  terms  "writer"  and  "reader"  will  be 
used  when  the  rules  apply  to  discourse  in  general,  as  well  as  when  they 
apply  to  written  discourse  exclusively. 

4.  The  Aim  of  the  study  of  Rhetoric. — The  aim  of  the 
study  of  Khetoric  is  practical. 

1.  It  is  a  scientific  introduction  to  tlie  art  of  composition. 
The  study  of  its  rules  and  principles  is  chiefly  valuable  as  a 
means  toward  acquiring  skill  and  readiness  in  the  effective 
communication  of  thought.  We  desire  to  learn  not  merely 
what  are  the  essentials  of  a  good  style,  but  how  to  convey  our 
thoughts  in  a  manner  appropriate  to  our  subject  and  purpose. 
There  is  what  is  called  natural  Ehetoric,  as  there  is  natural 
Logic.  Many  who  know  nothing  of  rhetorical  rules  express 
their  ideas  clearly  and  forcibly.  But  in  general,  it  is  true  of 
the  art  of  discourse,  as  of  all  other  arts,  that  before  any  con- 
siderable degree  of  perfection  in  it  can  be  reached,  the  blind 
spontaneous  process  must  be  converted  into  a  rational  one, 
that  is,  into  one  regulated  by  a  clear  insight  into  its  nature, 
end,  and  conditions. 


1G  INTRODUCTION.  Sec.  4 

We  must  not  expect  from  Rhetoric  what  it  does  not  profess 
to  give,  and  can  not  give.  It  does  not  furnish  the  materials 
of  a  discourse,  nor  aid  in  distinguishing  between  what  is  true 
and  what  is  false.  It  supposes  that  the  writer  has  obtained 
knowledge  from  other  sources,  and  confines  itself  to  giving 
directions  how  to  apply  it  for  a  definite  purpose. 

2.  It  is  an  introduction  to  the  critical  study  of  literary 
models.  The  study  here  meant  is  not  for  the  sake  of  the 
thoughts  which  the  work  may  contain,  but  one  concerned  with 
the  manner  of  expressing  the  thoughts.  It  is  directed  to 
ascertain  whether  the  work  in  its  matter,  arrangement,  and 
style  is  adapted  to  its  end,  and  conforms  to  the  laws  of  the 
class  to  which  it  belongs.  To  conduct  such  an  analytical 
study  intelligently  and  successfully,  we  must  be  familiar  both 
with  the  general  principles  of  discourse  and  the  special  laws 
of  its  several  classes. 

It  follows  from  this,  that  Rhetoric  is  a  necessary  prepara- 
tory study  to  literary  criticism  and  the  history  of  literature. 

5.  Systematic  Rhetoric  must  be  neither  neglected  nor 
studied  exclusively. — The  prevailing  tendency  is  to  neglect 
the  study  of  systematic  Rhetoric.  The  prejudice  against  it 
arises  from  a  misapprehension  of  its  nature  and  claims.  It  is 
not  a  system  of  minute  technical  and  arbitrary  rules,  but  of 
the  general  principles  on  which  the  communication  of  thought 
depends.  It  offers  the  results  of  the  experience  of  those  who 
have  excelled  in  the  art  of  convincing  and  persuading.  The 
question  then  is, — whether  it  is  not  more  advantageous  for  the 
beginner  to  learn  these  principles  from  the  experience  of  others, 
than  to  be  taught  them  by  the  tedious  and  frequently  mortify- 
ing lessons  of  his  own  experience.  There  can  be  but  one 
answer  to  this  question.  General  as  the  knowledge  imparted 
must  be,  it  will  aid  in  the  formation  of  good  habits  and  in 
preventing  the  formation  of  bad  ones ;  will  save  from  many  a 
blunder;  will  confer  that  readiness  and  certainty  which  rest 
on  the  clear  knowledge  of  the  principles  of  the  art  ;  and  will 


Sec,  7  INTRODUCTION.  17 

impart  the  sense  of  freedom  which  springs  from  the  conscious 
submission  to  law. 

But  to  make  the  theory  the  exclusive,  or  even  principal, 
object  of  study  is  as  grave  a  mistake  as  to  neglect  it  entirely. 
Something  more  than  a  mere  knowledge  of  rules  is  necessary 
to  enable  us  to  write  well.  They  must  be  so  impressed  on  the 
mind  and  fused  into  our  habits  of  thought  that  we  can  apply 
them  when  the  occasion  demands. 

To  acquire  such  a  facility  we  must  combine  the  study  of  the 
rules  and  technicalities  of  Ehetoric  with  assiduous  practice  in 
composition,  and  with  the  critical  study  of  works  of  literature. 

6.  Original  Composition. — This  exercise  is  indispensable, 
but  to  be  profitable  it  must  conform  to  the  following  rules : 

1.  The  composition  must  be  on  some  definite  subject.     The 
rule  is  stated  thus  by  Sir  Wm.   Hamilton:    "The  writing 
should  be  more  or  less  limited,  that  is,  be  in  answer  to  ques- 
tions more  or  less  articulate.     The  student  should  not  be  left 
to  roam  at  large ;    but  be  made  to  think  precisely  and  per- 
tinently, by  confining  him  to  certain  definite  points." 

2.  The  exercises  should  be  suited  to  the  age  and  attain- 
ments of  the  pupil. 

3.  There  should  be  variety  in  the  subjects  of  the  exercises 
in  order  to  cultivate  both  the  powers  of  thought  and  of  expres- 
sion.    Essays  on  historical,  geographical,  and  literary  subjects 
should  be  joined  to  those  on  political  and  moral. 

4.  The  essays  should  be  laboriously  composed  and  carefully 
revised.     By  writing  rapidly  one  can  not  learn  to  write  well, 
but  by  writing  well  one  learns  to  write  rapidly.     The  eifort  to 
express  our  thoughts  in  their  proper  order,  and  form  is  at  first 
painful  and  discouraging.     Every  act  requires  deliberation  and 
choice,  but  as  by  practice  the  habit  is  gradually  formed,  we 
proceed  with  increasing  freedom  and  certainty,  until,  at  last, 
we  accomplish  with  ease  and  pleasure  what,  at  the  beginning, 
wras  forced  and  irksome. 

7.  Exercises  in  which  the  matter  is  supplied, — To  pre- 

Rhet.  2 


18  INTEODUCTION.  Sec.  7 

vent  the  serious  evils  that  result  from  attempting  original 
composition  before  there  is  competent  knowledge,  it  is  advis- 
able to  prescribe  to  the  beginner  exercises  in  which  the  matter 
is  supplied,  that  is,  to  furnish  him  with  the  thoughts,  and 
require  him  to  express  them  in  his  own  words. 

These  exercises  are  of  different  kinds,  some  requiring  a 
greater  amount  of  intellectual  effort  than  others,  but  in  none 
is  the  writer  called  on  to  draw  from  his  own  stores;  he  has 
only  to  put  the  materials  given  him  in  a  particular  form,  or 
adapt  them  to  a  special  purpose.  The  most  important  are, 
Paraphrase,  the  preparing  of  Abstracts  and  Abridgments,  and 
Translation. 

Paraphrase. — This  exercise  consists  in  giving  the  contents 
of  some  work  or  passage  of  a  work  in  other  words  in  the  same 
language.  A  paraphrase  differs  from  a  translation  in  not 
being  a  transfer  from  one  language  to  another.  When  the 
transference  is  from  poetry  into  prose,  it  is  called  Metaphrase. 
We  generally  associate  with  paraphrase  the  notion  of  an  ex- 
pansion of  the  original  thought  by  definitions,  periphrasis,  ex- 
amples, etc.,  with  a  view  to  making  it  more  intelligible ;  but 
this  is  not  essential.  Here  is  meant  the  simpler  form,  in 
which  the  pupil  reproduces  in  his  own  words  the  complete 
thought  of  an  author,  without  attempting  to  explain  it  or  to 
imitate  the  style. 

It  has  been  frequently  urged  against  this  exercise,  that,  in 
thus  substituting  other  words  for  those  of  an  accurate  writer, 
we  must  necessarily  choose  such  as  are  less  expressive  of  the 
sense.  It  has,  however,  been  defended  by  one  of  the  greatest 
rhetoricians, — Quintilian. 

The  form  of  this  exercise  may  be  varied.  One  of  the  most 
improving,  and  not  open  to  the  objection  just  mentioned,  is  to 
prescribe  passages  from  old  English  authors  to  be  rendered 
into  modern  English  according  to  the  laws  of  style. 

Abstracts  and  Abridgments. — Another  exercise  is  to  re- 
quire the  pupil  to  give  the  substance  of  an  entire  work,  or  of 


Sec.  7  INTRODUCTION.  19 

an  extended  portion  of  it,  in  narrower  compass.  The  original 
text  may  be  modified  in  various  ways ;  as,  by  abbreviating, 
condensing,  substituting  words  and  phrases,  transposing  sen- 
tences, etc.  But  whatever  modifications  are  made  in  the 
matter  and  form  of  the  text,  the  abstract  should, 

1.  Contain  nothing  that  is  not  found  in  the  original ; 

2.  Give  all  the  essential  parts,  omitting  the  details ; 

3.  Give  them  accurately  and  distinctly,  and  as  concisely  as 
is  compatible  with  completeness  and  distinctness. 

The  abstract  may  be  either  a  bare  enumeration  of  the  main 
points  expressed  in  a  series  of  short  disconnected  sentences,  or 
a  connected  presentation  of  them  with  greater  fullness.  They 
may  be  given  in  the  words  of  the  original  or  in  the  pupil's 
own  words ;  the  latter  method  is  to  be  preferred  as  a  rhetorical 
exercise. 

These  exercises  are  most  important  as  aids  in  acquiring 
perspicuity  and  precision  of  style.  They  compel  the  pupil  to 
discriminate  between  the  principal  and  the  subordinate  ideas 
of  a  work  ;  to  decide  upon  the  relative  importance  of  its  parts; 
to  attend  to  the  arrangement  of  the  thoughts ;  and  to  present 
them  in  their  most  compact  form. 

REMARK. — Dr.  Arnold  in  a  letter  to  one  of  his  former  pupils  writes : 
"  I  am  very  glad  that  you  continue  to  practice  composition,  but  above  all 
I  would  advise  you  to  make  an  abstract  of  one  or  two  standard  works. 
One,  I  should  say  in  philosophy  ; — the  other  in  history.  I  would  not  be 
in  a  hurry  to  finish  them,  but  keep  them  constantly  going  on, — with  one 
page  always  clear  for  notes.  The  abstract  itself  practices  you  in  con- 
densing and  giving  in  your  own  words  what  another  man  has  said ;  a 
habit  of  great  value,  as  it  forces  one  to  think  about  it,  which  extracting 
merely  does  not.  It  further  gives  a  brevity  and  simplicity  to  your  lan- 
guage, two  of  the  greatest  merits  which  style  can  have." — [Stanley's  Life 
and  Correspondence  of  Arnold,  i.  334.] 

Translation. — In  this  exercise  the  thoughts  are  given  in  a 
foreign  language,  and  the  pupil  has  to  render  them  with  equal 
clearness,  fullness,  and  force  into  his  own. 

It  is  justly  esteemed  one  of  the  best  means  of  acquiring  cor- 
rect habits  of  thought  and  expression.  It  aids  in  cultivating 


20  INTRODUCTION.  Sec.  7 

the  taste  as  well  as  the  logical  powers.  It  compels  to  a  more 
minute  study  of  the  peculiarities  of  our  native  tongue,  enlarges 
our  vocabulary,  gives  readiness  and  skill  in  constructing  sen- 
tences, and  leads  to  a  better  acquaintance  with  the  character- 
istics of  the  .different  classes  of  compositions. 

The  laws  of  translation  are : 

1.  The  translation  must  be  an  exact  representation  of  the 
sense  of  the  original,  neither  adding  to  it  nor  taking  from  it. 

2.  It  must  preserve  the  spirit  and  style  of  the  original.     A 
perfect  translation  should  make  the  same  impression  upon  its 
readers  that  the  original  work  produced  upon  those  for  whom 
it  was  written. 

3.  It  must  be  idiomatic:   it  must  conform  to  the  laws  and 
idioms  of  the  language  in  which  it  is  written,  both  in  the 
choice  of  words  and  phrases,  and  in  the  structure  of  sentences. 
It  should  have  the  freedom  and  grace  of  an  original  produc- 
tion. 

A  perfectly  adequate  translation  is  impracticable.  Every 
language  has  words  and  phrases  for  which  another  can  supply 
no  equivalents,  and  words  have  associations  that  can  not  be 
transferred  to  foreign  ones.  It  seems  that  there  must  be  a 
sacrifice  in  part  either  of  fidelity  to  the  original  or  of  elegance 
of  style.  If  the  translator  strives  to  give  the  exact  meaning 
of  the  original,  he  is  apt  to  neglect  ease  and  grace  of  expres- 
sion ;  if  he  is  intent  on  giving  to  his  work  the  graces  of  style, 
he  will,  very  likely,  fail  to  render  the  thought  of  the  original 
with  exactness. 

Two  extremes  are  to  be  avoided. — The  one,  that  of  servile 
literal  translation,  which  is  rather  a  translation  of  separate 
words  than  of  entire  thoughts.  It  adheres  as  closely  as  pos- 
sible to  the  number  and  order  of  words,  and  to  the  construction 
of  the  original;  word  corresponds  to  word,  sentence  to  sen- 
tence. Translations  made  according  to  this  method  are  neither 
accurate  nor  elegant ;  they  do  not  give  the  spirit  and  meaning 
of  the  original,  are  stiff  and  obscure,  substitute  foreign  idioms 


Sec,  8  INTRODUCTION.  21 

for  native,  and  are  mostly  mere  caricatures  "  which  exemplify 
all  the  faults  incident  to  language  and  exclude  every  excel- 
lence." 

The  other  extreme  is  that  of  a  loose  or  excessively  free 
translation ;  one  that  renders  the  thought  with  great  latitude 
and  indulges  freely  in  periphrasis,  interpolations,  and  omis- 
sions. This  method  may  present  us  with  works  written  in 
idiomatic  English  and  with  great  beauty  of  style,  but  they  are 
unfaithful  representations  of  the  original  ;  in  many  cases  they 
mutilate,  if  they  do  not  misrepresent  its  meaning,  and  they 
never  reproduce  the  nice  shades  of  thought  involved  in  par- 
ticular  words  and  their  arrangement. 

While  it  is  the  duty  of  a  translator  to  conform  always  to 
his  native  idiom,  it  is  also  his  duty  to  present  faithfully  the 
thoughts  of  the  original  without  mutilation  and  without  any 
admixture  of  his  own  views.  And  if  ease  and  elegance  are 
attainable  only  at  the  expense  of  fidelity,  some  degree  of 
roughness  is  to  be  preferred. 

8.  Study  of  Models. — The  study  of  systematic  Ehetoric  and 
practice  in  composition  will  not  accomplish  to  any  adequate 
extent  their  end  unless  they  are  combined  with  the  study  of 
models  of  literary  excellence. 

It  is  a  great  mistake  to  exclude  this  study  from  a  course  of 
rhetorical  training,  or  to  give  to  it  a  subordinate  place.  It  is 
only  by  the  constant  application  of  the  principles  of  Ehetoric 
to  the  masterpieces  of  genius  and  taste  (which  are  the  most 
perfect  results  of  the  processes  whose  laws  it  investigates), 
that  it  can  be  saved  from  becoming  a  collection  of  narrow 
artificial  rules,  and  rhetorical  practice  be  prevented  from  de- 
generating into  a  mechanical  process. 

Without  such  a  study  of  literary  models,  rhetorical  rules 
and  precepts  can  not  be  intelligible.  Its  relation  to  sys- 
tematic Ehetoric  has  been  very  aptly  compared  to  that  which 
the  examination  of  the  actual  experiments  of  the  philosopher 
bears  to  the  abstract  statements  and  formulas  in  which  the 
results  of  the  experiments  are  embodied.  The  necessity  of 


22  INTRODUCTION.  Sec,  8 

examining  experiments  is  even  greater  in  literary  studies  than 
in  natural  science. 

The  benefits  of  an  intelligent  and  prolonged  study  of  the 
standards  of  taste  are, — that  it  both  shows  the  pupil  what  real 
excellence  is  and  incites  him  to  seek  it;  leads  him  to  the 
knowledge  of  his  own  peculiar  tastes  and  aptitudes ;  quickens 
his  perception  of  what  is  correct  and  incorrect,  beautiful  and 
deformed ;  and  imparts  a  more  vigorous  and  elevated  mode  of 
thinking. 

The  beginner  needs  a  judicious  adviser  to  direct  him  what 
to  study  and  how  to  study. 

What  to  Study. — The  works  should  be  few,  and  those  the 
most  perfect  of  their  kind.  Writers  whose  style  is  bad  are 
not  suitable  for  beginners,  whose  taste  is  not  yet  formed,  and 
who  are  more  easily  led  astray  by  brilliant  faults,  than  im- 
pressed by  unobtrusive  excellences. 

There  should  be  a  sufficient  variety  in  the  selection.  Other- 
wise, the  pupil  will  be  in  danger  of  servile  imitation,  and  will 
lose  the  advantages  that  are  derived  from  the  comparison  of 
different  writers.  He  should  not  be  confined  to  prose,  but 
should  become  familiar  with  the  standards  in  all  departments 
of  literature.  "One  can,"  says  Hegel,  "and  one  ought  to 
become  acquainted  with  all  that  is  glorious  in  literature." 
The  "volumes  paramount"  of  our  English  literature  should 
be  unremittingly  studied, — those  great  national  works  "which 
have  mingled  with  the  life  blood  of  the  people,  and  from  which 
all  classes  for  generation  after  generation  draw  their  views  of 
nature  and  life,  which  form  the  bonds  of  intellectual  and 
moral  sympathy  amongst  all,  in  which  all  ranks  may  meet  as 
in  a  church  and  all  may  feel  at  home." — [Hare,  Guesses  at 
Truth.] 

How  to  Study.— The  student  should  analyze  the  works  and 
apply  to  them,  and  test  by  them,  the  principles  of  literary 
criticism.  He  should  endeavor  to  discover  the  writer's  reasons 
for  his  choice  and  arrangement  of  words  and  his  management 


Sec.  9  INTRODUCTION.  23 

of  the  subject.  And  as  it  is  impossible  in  one  exercise  to 
apply  all  the  rhetorical  principles  to  a  composition  of  even 
moderate  size,  the  same  work  should  be  made  the  object  of 
repeated  special  examination.  At  one  time,  its  general  plan 
may  be  examined  ;  at  another,  the  mode  of  amplifying  some 
of  the  leading  ideas  ;  at  another,  the  structure  of  the  sentences 
and  paragraphs  ;  at  another,  the  choice  of  words,  etc. 

The  attention  of  the  student  should  be  directed  to  the  beau- 
ties of  the  work,  not  to  its  defects  merely.  The  best  criticism 
is  that  which  finds  out  the  excellence  of  a  composition  ;  and  it 
is  by  far  the  most  difficult.  It  is  the  indication  of  sound  judg- 
ment and  refined  taste.  It  should  be  remembered  that  our 
powers  are  improved  by  contemplating  what  is  excellent,  not 
what  is  deformed;  and  also  that  beginners  are  not  prepared 
to  point  out  defects. 

9.  Distribution  of  Rhetoric.  —  We  shall  first  treat  of  the 
general  principles  common  to  all  forms  of  prose,  and  then 
apply  these  principles  to  the  different  kinds  of  matter  and 
discourse. 

These  principles  relate  to  the  matter  of  the  discourse,  —  i.  e.f 
to  the  thoughts  of  which  it  is  composed,  —  and  to  the  style,  —  ' 
i.  £.,  to  the  expression  of  the  thoughts  in  language. 

The  thoughts  are  principal,  the  language  is  but  accessory  ; 
but  neither  can  be  neglected  by  the  writer.  The  merit  of  a 
literary  work  does  not  depend  exclusively  either  on  the  quality 
of  its  matter  or  on  its  diction,  but  on  the  union  of  the  two- 
There  must  be  true  and  appropriate  thoughts  clothed  in  fitting 
words.  A  work  in  which  great  truths  are  communicated  in 
obscure  and  confused  language  may  be  valuable  as  a  work  of 
science,  but  can  not  be  ranked  among  works  of  literature.  On 
the  other  hand,  no  artifices  of  diction  can  give  value  to  a  dis- 
course wanting  in  vigorous  thought.  Sound  thought  is  the 
indispensable  condition  of  good  writing.  The  student's  atten- 
tion is,  accordingly,  directed  first  to  the  mental  processes  con- 
cerned with  the  matter  of  the  discourse,  and  afterwards  to  the 
laws  for  the  expression  of  thought  in 


Of    THE 

UNIVERSITY 


24  INTKODUCT10N.  Sec.  9 

Different  kinds  of  Matter. — The  matter  of  discourse  is  of 
different  kinds.  In  communicating  knowledge,  we  may  have 
an  object  to  describe,  an  event  to  narrate,  a  general  notion  to 
explain,  or  a  proposition  to  prove.  Description,  Narration, 
Exposition,  and  Argumentation  are  therefore  the  elements,  or 
elementary  forms,  of  all  discourse.  They  must  be  considered 
separately,  and  the  general  principles  be  applied  to  each. 

Different  kinds  of  Discourse. — These  elements  are  com- 
bined in  different  ways  and  modified  according  to  the  purpose 
of  the  writer.  Thus  arise  distinct  kinds  or  classes  of  discourse ; 
as,  didactic,  historical,  oratorical;  each  of  which,  while  it  has 
much  in  common  with  the  others,  has  its  distinctive  features 
and  special  laws.  It  is  part  of  the  office  of  Rhetoric  to  classify 
the  leading  forms  of  prose,  and  to  exhibit  their  characteristic 
marks. 

This  Work  distributed  into  Four  Parts. — This  treatise  is 
distributed  into  four  parts.  The  first  part  treats  of  the  proc- 
esses conversant  about  the  matter  of  a  discourse;  the  second, 
of  the  principles  of  style;  the  third,  of  the  elementary  forms 
of  a  discourse ;  the  fourth,  of  the  principal  forms  of  prose. 


PART  I. 


THE  PROCESSES  CONVERSANT  ABOUT   THE  MATTER 
OF  A  DISCOURSE. 


PBELIMLNABY. 

10.  What  are  the  processes  conversant  about  the  matter 
of  a  Discourse  ? — We  are  to  investigate,  first  of  all,  the  proc- 
esses concerned  with  the  matter  of  discourse  and  their  laws. 
AVe  shall  examine  and  exhibit  in  their  natural  order  the  various 
mental  acts  involved  in  the  process  of  composition,  from  the 
finding  of  the  subject  to  its  complete  development.  This  part 
might  very  appropriately  be  entitled, — The  Method  of  Compo- 
sition (excluding  what  is  concerned  with  the  expression  of  the 
thoughts  in  language). 

A  preliminary  caution  is  necessary.  Any  analysis  of  men- 
tal phenomena  is  defective  and  partially  false,  for  it  exhibits 
as  separate  what  in  nature  are  inseparable.  The  psychologist 
discusses  separately  thought,  feeling,  and  volition,  yet  the 
three  blend  in  every  act.  So  in  Bhetoric  we  separate  thought 
and  language,  although  they  are  mutually  dependent,  each 
supposing  the  other,  and  we  consider  as  entirely  distinct  the 
finding  of  the  thoughts  and  the  arranging  of  them,  whereas,  in 
reality,  the  two  processes  often  mingle.  Still,  as  it  is  impor- 
tant that  the  student  obtain  a  distinct  view  of  the  complex 
process,  and  as  each  part  of  it,  though  dependent  on  and  im- 
plied in  the  others,  has  its  distinctive  features,  it  is  necessary 
for  the  sake  of  clearness  to  examine  each  separately. 

AVlicn  one  wishes  to  accomplish  some  definite  object  *)y 
means  of  a  discourse  either  spoken  or  written,  he  has, — 

Rhet.  3  ('25) 


26  MATTER  OF  A  DISCOURSE.  Sec.  10 

1.  To  find  some  thought  connected  with  this  end  or  aim 
which  will  serve  as  the  basis  of  his  discourse  ;  i.  e.j  to  find  a 
subject. 

2.  To  gather  and  select  the  ideas  involved  in,  or  associated 
with  the  subject  that  are  needed  to  develop  it  adequately. 

3.  To  arrange  these  ideas  in  the   order  required   by   the 
nature  of  the  discourse  and  his  special  purpose. 

11.  The  main  and  the  subordinate  ideas  to  be  distin- 
guished.— We  find  in  every  discourse  certain  thoughts  that 
are  more  important  than  the  rest;  they  are  derived  immedi- 
ately from  the  main  idea,  or  subject,  are  indispensable  parts 
of  its  development,  constitute  the  grand  divisions  of  the  dis- 
course, and  contain  a  number  of  thoughts  under  them.  These 
are  the  main  ideas  of  the  discourse. 

There  are  others  which  sustain  the  same  relation  to  the  main 
ideas  as  these  do  to  the  subject;  they  are  derived  from  them, 
and  serve  to  explain,  illustrate,  and  enforce  them.  These  are 
called  the  subordinate  ideas. 

It  is  important  to  distinguish  between  these.  The  main 
thoughts  must  always  be  found  and  arranged  before  the  sub- 
ordinate ones  can  be  selected.  The  labor  of  composing  as  well 
as  of  analyzing  will  be  rendered  much  less  tedious  and  per- 
plexing if  this  distinction  is  kept  in  view. 

Distribution  of  this  Part. — In  accordance  with  what  has 
just  been  said,  this  Part  is  divided  into  the  following  chap- 
ters : 

I.  THE  SUBJECT  OF  A  DISCOURSE. 
II.  INVENTION,  or  the  finding  of  the  main  ideas  of  a  dis- 
course. 

III.  DISPOSITION,  or  the  arranging  of  the  main  ideas. 
IY.  AMPLIFICATION,  or  the  finding  and  arranging  of  the 
subordinate  ideas. 


Sec.  12  SUBJECT  OF  A  DISCOURSE.  .    27 

CHAPTEE   I. 

THE    SUBJECT   OF  A  DISCOURSE. 

12.  The  Subject  either  given  or  left  to  the  writer's 
choice. — The  subject  of  a  discourse  is  the  general  idea  or 
thought  connected  with  the  aim  of  the  writer  which  he  intends 
to  present  in  some  of  its  aspects.  It  may  be  given  to  him 
with  more  or  less  defiiiiteness,  as  in  the  eloquence  of  the 
senate  and  of  the  bar,  in  prize  essays,  and  in  many  collegiate 
exercises ;  or  it  may  be  left  to  his  choice,  as  in  the  eloquence 
of  the  pulpit  and  in  most  kinds  of  composition. 

Forms  in. which  given. — It  may  be  expressed  literally  or 
figuratively  ;  in  a  single  term  or  phrase ;  in  a  sentence — de- 
clarative, interrogative,  or  imperative — or  combination  of  sen- 
tences. 

In  whatever  form  the  subject  is  given,  the  writer  can  not 
enter  on  the  work  of  composition  until  he  has  ascertained  what 
is  the  precise  idea  that  the  words  are  intended  to  convey.  His 
first  task  then  is  to  weigh  the  terms  and  analyze  the  sentences 
in  which  his  subject  is  expressed. 

Rules  to  be  observed. — The  following  rules  should  be  ob- 
served : 

1.  Whatever  notions  are  not  sufficiently  clear  and  distinct 
must  be  defined,  or,  at  least,  their  essential  qualities  must 
be  enumerated;  poetic  expressions  should  be  converted  into 
prose ;  figurative,  into  literal. 

EXAMPLE.— "  The  battle  of  Marathon,  one  of  the  decisive  battles  of  the 
world."  The  meaning  of  the  word  decisive  as  used  in  this  connection 
should  be  accurately  determined. 

"  Men's  evil  manners  live  in  brass ; 
Their  virtues  we  write  in  water." 

Men's  evil  deeds  are  remembered  long  after  their  good  deeds  are  forgot- 
ten.   *i 


28  MATTER  OF  A  DISCOURSE.  Sec.  12 

"Exercise  thyself  unto  godliness."  "  Train  thyself — thy  religious  char- 
acter— with  an  eagerness  and  activity,  patience  and  perseverance  like 
that  of  the  athletes  training  their  bodies  for  the  games." 

2.  The  relations  of  the  several  notions  as  limiting,  qualify- 
ing, supplementing  each  other  are  to  be  carefully  noticed,  lest 
the  subject  be  understood  in  a  sense  either  too  extensive  or  too 

-  narrow,  and  a  subordinate  be  taken  for  the  main  idea. 

Ex.—"  The  study  of  Mathematics  as  an  exercise  of  mind."  Not  the 
science  but  the  study;  not  the  practical,  material  utilities  of  the  study, 
but  its  utility  as  a  means  of  intellectual  discipline. 

"If  it  l)e  possible,  as  much  as  lieth  in  you  live  peaceably  with  all 
men."  The  duty  enjoined  can  not  be  exhibited  in  its  entire  extent  and 
with  its  necessary  limitations,  if  the  qualifications  contained  in  the  words, 
"if  it  be  possible"  and  "all"  are  not  accurately  weighed. 

3.  It  must  be  ascertained  whether  the  proposition  contains 
several  judgments  or  but  a  single  one. 

If  it  is  complex,  it  must  be  separated  into  the  several  judg- 
ments contained  in  it.  Sometimes  several  distinct  judgments 
can  be  combined,  and  a  new  one  formed  comprehending  all  of 
them. 

Ex. — "The  universality  and  evil  effects  of  prejudice."  Two  distinct 
assertions  are  contained  in  this:  (1)  Prejudice  is  universal;  (2)  Its 
effects  are  injurious. 

"There  is  a  tide  in  the  affairs  of  men, 
Which,  taken  at  the  flood,  leads  on  to  fortune; 
Omitted,  all  the  voyage  of  their  life- 
Is  bound  in  shallows  and  in  miseries." 

The  two  assertions,  that  opportune  moments  occur  in  a  man's  life,  and 
that  the  neglect  to  improve  them  brings  disaster  and  suffering,  may  be 
embraced  in  the  single  imperative  sentence,  "Improve  the  present  oppor- 
tunity." 

"Prove  all  things,  hold  fast  what  is  good."  The  two  commands  may 
be  reduced  to  one,  "Avoid  the  extremes  of  credulity  and  skepticism." 

13.  The  Subject  chosen  by  the  Writer. — When  the  subject 
is  left  to  the  choice  of  the  writer,  he  is  often  embarrassed  in 


Sec.  13  SUBJECT  OF  A  DISCOURSE.  20 

/f 

J  selecting  from  the  crowd  of  thoughts  presented  to  his  mind 
,  the  one  that  is  suited  to  his  purpose.  His  range  of  choice  will 
be  limited  by  his  special  studies,  his  taste,  the  opportunity  for 
preparation,  etc. ;  but  that  he  may  not  err  at  the  very  outset, 
he  must,  in  addition  to  these,  take  into  consideration  the  rela- 
tion of  the  subject  to  himself  and  to  the  reader. 

The  relation  of  the  Subject  to  the  Writer. — It  must  be 
appropriate  to  his  age  and  attainments,  and  one,  of  the  truth 
and  importance  of  which  he  is  thoroughly  convinced. 

Fullness  of  knowledge  and  thoroughness  of  conviction  are 
the  primary  conditions  of  power  in  communicating  thought. 
"  Speak  not  at  all,  in  anywise,"  says  Carlyle,  "  until  you 
have  somewhat  to  speak;  care  not  for  the  reward  of  your 
speaking,  but  simply  and  with  undivided  mind  for  the  truth  of 
your  speaking.77 

The  attempt  to  discuss  a  subject  beyond  the  writer's  ca- 
pacity and  knowledge  must  end  in  failure.  He  does  not  know 
what  to  say ;  he  can  not  use  the  materials  he  has  ;  his  pro- 
duction will  be  a  series  of  vague  general  expressions  conveying 
no  distinct  notions  to  himself  or  to  the  reader,  a  collection  of 
second-hand  sentiments  and  empty  commonplaces  strung  to- 
gether in  an  artificial,  frigid  manner,  which  can  neither  inter- 
est nor  affect  others. 

That  the  'writer  should  be  convinced  of  the  truth  and  im- 
portance of  his  subject  is  demanded  on  rhetorical  grounds 
apart  from  moral.  Our  feelings  exert  a  powerful  influence 
upon  our  intellectual  activities.  A  deep  moral  interest  in  the 
subject  fixes  the  attention  on  it,  calls  up  from  memory  related 
thoughts,  and  directs  them  to  the  main  end  for  which  the  dis- 
course is  made ;  while  the  consciousness  of  insincerity  distracts 
the  mind  and  prevents  the  writer  from  yielding  himself  en- 
tirely to  his  subject.  His  meditation  will  be  languid  and 
painful  •  and  the  coldness,  artificial  structure,  and  want  of 
re -a!  unity  of  the  discourse  will  betray  his  un  truthfulness. 
This  explains  why  many  discourses  that  have  very  great 
defects  are  nevertheless  so  convincing  and  persuasive,  while 


30  MATTER  OF  A  DISCOURSE.  Sec,  13 

others,  apparently  correct  and  finished,  are  so  feeble.  The 
laws  of  discourse  are  the  laws  of  sincere  utterance,  and  can  be 
obeyed  only  by  the  sincere. 

The  relation  of  the  Subject  to  the  Reader. — It  must  be 
suited  to  the  character  and  condition  of  those  to  whom  the 
discourse  is  addressed. 

The  discourse  is  but  a  means  to  an  end ;  if  its  subject  is  not 
appropriate  to  the  temper,  feelings,  intellectual  and  moral  con- 
dition, and  circumstances  of  the  readers,  it  can  not  interest 
them  and  must  fail  to  accomplish  its  purpose. 

14.  The  determination  of  the  Subject. — The  subject  when 
first  chosen  by  the  writer  has  not  the  definite  form  and  limits 
in  which  it  will  be  presented  in  the  discourse.      In  a  well 
constructed  work  we  find  no  difficulty  in  discovering  its  main 
idea, — that  to  which  the  others  are  subordinate  and  of  which 
they  are  only  the  development.     But  we  must  not  suppose, 
that  the  form  in  which  we  thus  find  it  is  that  in  which  it 
occurred  originally  to  the  writer.     It  was  at  first  a  somewhat 
vague  and  indefinite  general  idea,  connected  in  some  of  its 
parts  with  his  purpose,  but  containing  also  much  that  had  no 
connection  with  it;  it  was  related  to  a  number  of  other  sub- 
jects, and  was  equally  suitable  to  discourses  of  various  kinds 
and  for  different  purposes. 

Prolonged  reflection  was  necessary  to  limit  this  vague  and 
indeterminate  subject,  and  to  adapt  it  to  the  special  character 
and  aim  of  the  discourse.  To  effect  this,  it  was  necessary  to 
contemplate  it  from  a  particular  point  of  view,  to  dwell  upon 
whatever  it  contained  that  related  to  the  end  to  be  realized, 
neglecting  all  that  was  irrelevant,  however  interesting  and 
important  in  other  respects  it  might  be.  This  process  is  called 
determining  the  subject. 

15.  The  Theme. — When  the  subject  is  thus  determined  and 
is  expressed  as  briefly  and  precisely  as  possible  in  language,  it 
is  called  the  theme. 


Sec.  15  SUBJECT  OF  A  DISCOURSE.  31 

The  subject  and  the  theme  are  usually  regarded  as  iden- 
tical. The  distinction  between  them  is,  however,  real  and 
important.  The  subject  is  a  general  thought  connected  with 
the  aim  of  the  writer;  the  theme  is  the  subject  limited  and 
modified  by  the  end  in  view,  by  the  character  of  the  discourse, 
and  by  the  circumstances  of  the  case.  It  is  the  clearest,  brief- 
est, most  precise  statement  of  so  much  of  the  subject  as  the 
writer  intends  to  develop  in  his  work. 

A  number  of  entirely  different  themes  can  be  derived  from 
the  same  subject.  For  example,  several  writers  could  discuss 
such  a  subject  as  Wealth  or  Labor,  and  no  two  of  them  have 
the  same  theme.  One  would  confine  himself  to  its  econom- 
ical, another  to  its  social,  another  to  its  religious  aspects. 
Each  would  limit  and  modify  the  same  general  subject,  and 
appropriate  what  suits  his  special  purpose. 

Its  requisites. — The  theme  is  the  germ  of  the  entire  dis- 
course, for  the  discourse  is  only  the  explicit  statement  of  what 
is  contained  implicitly  in  the  theme.  It  is  all  important  that 
the  writer  lay  it  down  in  his  mind  in  its  proper  form ;  if  he 
neglect  to  do  so  he  will  inevitably  fail  to  accomplish  his  end. 
If  properly  laid  down,  the  theme  should  comply  with  the  fol- 
lowing conditions : 

1.  It  should  grow  naturally  out  of  the  study  of  the  subject 
both  in  its  real  nature  and  in  its  relation  to  the  object  to  be 
accomplished.     If  the  subject  is  not  mastered,  the  theme  will 
be  drawn  from  a  superficial  and  erroneous  view  of  it,  will 
contain  extraneous  matter,  and  may  have  no  connection  what- 
ever with  it.     If  the  subject  is  carefully  studied,,  but  without 
special  reference  to  the  application  of  it  that  we  wish  to  make, 
the  idea  adapted  to  our  purpose  will  not  be  found.     In  both 
cases  the  theme  will  be  arbitrary.     The  writer  must  not  be 
too  precipitate  in  laying  down  his  theme.     He  can  not  obtain 
it  until  the  work  of  meditation  is  finished. 

2.  It  should  have  unity.     Unity  is  not  simplicity.     The 
theme  may  be  a  complex  thought,  but  however  complex,  it 
should  be  but  ojie  thought.     This  is  indispensable  to  the  unity 


32  MATTEK  OF  A  DISCOURSE.  Sec.  15 

of  the  discourse,  which  is  the  result  of  the  subordination  of  all 
its  parts  to  one  dominant  idea.  If  the  theme  is  composed  of 
a  number  of  distinct  thoughts,  the  discourse,  instead  of  being 
one  complete,  organic  whole,  will  be  a  mixture  of  fragments 
of  several  discourses  on  different  themes. 

3.  It  must  be  neither  too  broad  nor  too  narrow.    When  it 
is  too  broad,  i.  e.,  when  it  embraces  more  than  is  necessary — 
any  thing  more  than  the  aim  and  character  of  the  work  de- 
mands— the  writer,  if  he  develops  it  naturally  and  correctly,  is 
compelled   to  admit  a  great  deal  that  is  irrelevant,  which, 
besides  adding  unnecessarily  to  the  length  of  his  production, 
withdraws  the  attention  from  the  main  point,  and  renders  the 
total  impression  feeble  and  indistinct.     When  it  is  too  narrow, 
i.  e.j  when  it  does  not  express  the  whole  thought  of  the  writer, 
and  embrace  all  that  is  essential  to  his  purpose, — as  he  dare 
not  admit  into  the  development  what  is  not  contained  in  the 
theme,  he  can  not  communicate  what  he  Avishes,  or  can  do  so 
only  by  abandoning  his  theme. 

4.  It  should  be  comprehensive  rather  than  extensive.     Ex- 
tensive or  very  general  themes — such  as  cover  a  great  deal  of 
ground — are,  for  the  most  part,  less  fertile  than  more  compre- 
hensive or  particular  ones.     The  restricted  view  of  a  subject 
furnishes  more  abundant  and  valuable  matter.     In  a  broad 
theme,  as  the  writer  has  not  space  to  unfold  and  illustrate 
his  statements,  he  is  confined  to  vague  generalities  and  trite 
remarks ;    while  in  a  less  extensive  theme,  he  is  compelled  to 
examine  the  details  more  thoroughly  and  to  distinguish  them 
more  precisely,  and  so  can  present  a  greater  variety  of  particu- 
lar ideas. 

5.  It  must  be  clear  and  distinct.     The  writer  must  not  be 
content  with  a  mere  general  impression,  but  should  state  it 
with  the  greatest  possible  clearness  and  keep  it  constantly  in 
view.     Any  uncertainty  as  to  its  meaning  or  extent,  or  indis- 
tinctness in  the  notions  contained  in  it,  will  lead  to  the  viola- 
tion of  its  unity  by  confounding  it  with  connected  or  related 
yet  different  ideas,  and  to  looseness  and  obscurity  in  its  treat- 
ment. 


Sec.  16  SUBJECT  OF  A   DISCOURSE.  33 

16.  The  Title. — The  title  is  intended  to  convey  to  others 
a  general  idea  of  the  nature  and  contents  of  the  work.  Its 
choice,  especially  in  the  more  purely  literary  productions,  is 
often  a  matter  of  considerable  difficulty. 

Rules  for  the  choice  of. — The  rules  to  be  observed  in 
choosing  a  title  are  : 

1.  It  should  express  the  main  idea  of  the  work.     A  title 
drawn  from  a  subordinate  idea  is  idle  and  often  misleading. 
Even  those  cases  in  which  it  is  the  purpose  of  the  writer  not 
to  reveal  at  first  the  drift  of  his  work  are  not  exceptions  to  this 
rule.     In  all  cases  it  is  necessary  that  the  appropriateness  of 
the  title,  if  not  apparent  at  first,  should  become  so  in  the 
course  of  the  work. 

2.  It  should  not  promise  too  much,  and  so  raise  expectations 
that  will  be  disappointed. 

3.  It  should  be  concise,  readily  understood,  and  easily  re- 
membered.   Verbosity  and  new  or  uncommon  words  are  no- 
where more  out  of  place  than  in  the  title.     At  the  same  time, 
whatever  has  the  appearance  of  affectation,  pedantry,  and  pre- 
sumption ought  to  be  avoided. 

4.  When  figurative  expressions  are  used,  the  propriety  of 
their  application  should  be  easily  recognized.     Objection,  for 
example,  has  frequently  been  made  to  the  title  of  Johnson's 
Rambler;  as  it  suits  neither  the  character  of  the  work  nor  of 
the  author. 

5.  An  explanatory  phrase  or  clause  is  sometimes  annexed  to 
a  figurative  or  general  title  to  prevent  misconception  of  the 
scope  of  the  work  or  to  indicate  it  with  more  exactness. 

Ex. — "  Biographia  Literaria ;  or  Biographical  Sketches  of  my  Literary 
life  and  opinions."  (Coleridge.)  "Social  Statics;  or  the  conditions  es- 
sential to  Human  Happiness  specified,  and  the  first  of  them  developed." 
(Herbert  Spencer.)  "Truth,  Falsehood,  and  Fiction; — an  Allegory." 
(Johnson.) 


34  MATTER  OF  A  DISCOURSE.  Sec,  17 

CHAPTEE  II. 

INVENTION. 

17.  Invention  defined. — Invention,  in  its  widest  significa- 
tion, includes  all  the  processes  involved  in  the  conception,  de- 
velopment, and  arrangement  of  the  matter  of  a  discourse:  we 
may  be  said  to  invent  the  subject  and  plan  as  well  as  the 
ideas.  In  its  narrowest  sense,  it  denotes  the  process  or  art  of 
finding  the  main  thoughts  of  a  discourse.  In  this  sense  it  is 
here  employed. 

Invention  as  a  power  of  the  Mind. — Xo  system  of  max- 
ims or  rules  can  teach  one  to  find  what  suits^  his  purpose. 
This  is  the  act  of  an  original  power  of  the  mind,  which  may 
be  developed  and  strengthened  by  education,  but  can  never  be 
acquired.  To  the  higher  forms  of  this  power  of  invention  in 
science  and  art  is  given  the  name  of  genius. 

Minds  differ  greatly  as  to  the  kind  of  invention  they  possess: 
some  have  it  in  abstract  subjects,  others  in  concrete ;  some  in 
oratorical,  others  in  historical,  others  in  philosophical  subjects. 
They  are  also  very  unequal  with  respect  to  fertility  of  inven- 
tion: one  finds  much  that  is  new  and  valuable  in  a  subject 
that  to  another  affords  only  what  is  trivial  and  commonplace. 
So  far  as  these  diversities  result  from  constitutional  differences 
of  mind,  they  can  not  be  remedied  by  education.  ]^o  one  can 
give  himself  a  different  kind  of  invention.  But  all  may  im- 
prove the  kind  they  have. 

Means  of  improving  it. — This  power  is  susceptible  of  a 
high  degree  of  culture.  We  sometimes  find  those  who  can 
recall  and  apply  their  knowledge  with  promptness  and  cer- 
tainty whenever  circumstances  require  it.  Such  ready  and 
habitual  fertility  of  invention  is  however  a  rare  attainment :  it 
is  one  of  the  last  results  of  long  and  severe  mental  discipline. 
Some  of  the  important  means  towards  acquiring  it  are : 

1.    Extent  of  knowledge. — The  mind  can  not  create:    it 


Sec.  17  INVENTION.  35 

must  receive  before  it  can  produce.  Varied  knowledge  both 
determines  it  to  more  vigorous  energy  and  furnishes  the  ma- 
terials on  which  it  can  employ  its  powers;  and,  instead  of 
being  unfriendly  to  originality ,  is  an  aid  to  it.  What  Thom- 
son says  of  scientific  discovery  is  equally  true  of  rhetorical 
invention:  "The  suggestive  power  may  be  educated  as  cer- 
tainly as,  though  more  gradually  than,  the  critical.  The  dis- 
covery which  we  call  a  flash  of  genius,  a  happy  thought,  really 
depends  as  much  upon  previous  acquirements,  as  the  power  of 
stating  a  case  or  applying  a  rule  does." 

2.  Habits  of  methodical  thought. — Those  have  a  great  ad- 
vantage in  invention  who  have  formed  the  habit  of  associating 
their  thoughts  by  their  real  and  logical  connections,  and  of 
referrring  particular  facts  to  general  principles  and  illustrating 
principles  by  facts.     By  thus  methodizing  their  ideas  and  mul- 
tiplying the  number  of  relations  between  them,  they  retain 
them  more  firmly  and  can  recall  them  more  readily.     Those, 
on  the  contrary,  whose  ideas  are  united  by  merely  accidental 
associations  and  are  thrown   together  in   the  mind  without 
order  or  classification,  have  no  control  over  their  knowledge. 
When  they  would  meditate  upon  a  subject  their  thoughts  are 
confused;  many  are  suggested  that  have  no  real  connection 
with  the  subject,  while  those  that  are  appropriate  remain  con- 
cealed, or  are  discovered  by  accident  only. 

3.  Exercise. — -Like  the  other  mental  powers,  it  is  improved . 
by  exercise.     The  more  frequently  we  apply  ourselves  to  gath- 
ering and  selecting  thoughts  for  a  special  purpose,  the  greater 
facility  do  we  acquire.     To  be  profitable,  the  exercise  should 
be  regular,  systematic,  and  painstaking.     The  power  of  inven- 
tion is  feeble  with  most  persons  because  it  has  never  been 
properly  exerted. 

Invention  different  from  investigation. — Invention  differs, 
both  in  its  aim  and  method,  from  scientific  investigation.  The 
scientific  inquirer  seeks  to  extend  his  knowledge  and  to  give 
to  it  distinctness  and  harmony.  He  pursues  his  investigations 
for  his  own  enlightenment  only,  without  regard  to  the  re- 


36  MATTER  OF  A  DISCOURSE.  Sec.  17 

quirements  of  others ;  nor  can  lie  always  foresee  what  conclu- 
sions his  inquiries  will  lead  him  to.  It  is  very  different  with 
the  writer  who  intends  to  communicate  knowledge.  He  is 
supposed  to  be  already  in  possession  of  what  he  wishes  to 
convey  to  others.  The  process  of  investigation  is  completed, 
the  facts  and  principles  are  already  ascertained,  before  the 
work  of  composition  begins.  Invention,  then,  is  not  a  process 
by  which  we  extend  our  knowledge  or  give  to  it  greater  clear- 
ness and  certainty,  but  one  by  which  we  gather  from  our  own 
stores  whatever  can  aid  us  in  accomplishing  our  object.  It  is 
not  a  search  for  new  truths;  but  for  facts,  principles,  argu- 
ments, and  motives  to  explain,  establish,  or  enforce  what  we 
already  know  or  believe. 

He  who  seeks  to  present  truth  in  an  intelligible  and  con- 
vincing manner  to  others  must  regard  many  things  that  ought 
never  to  influence  him  whose  aim  is  to  ascertain  the  truth. 
And  it  is  not  always  the  case,  that  one  who  has  obtained 
clearness  and  certainty  in  his  views  has  the  skill  to  render 
them  clear  and  certain  to  others.  Invention  differs  from  inves- 
tigation in  not  being  regulated  exclusively  by  the  nature  of  the 
subject-matter;  it  is  a  process  whose  direction  and  limits  are 
determined  by  the  object  of  the  waiter,  by  the  kind  of  discourse 
he  intends  to  make,  and  by  the  character  and  condition  of 
those  for  whom  he  writes. 

18.  Meditation. — Although  we  are  supposed  to  be  familiar 
with  the  subject  upon  wliich  we  propose  to  write,  it  is  seldom 
that  our  knowledge  is  so  completely  under  our  control  that  we 
can  recall  it  at  once  and  present  it  in  its  appropriate  form. 
Of  what  we  have  gathered  at  different  times  from  various 
quarters,  much  lies  dormant  in  the  memory ;  the  full  import 
of  much  is  not  unfolded;  many  of  the  facts  and  principles 
bearing  upon  our  purpose  lie  disconnected,  and  their  relation 
to  each  other  and  their  importance  are  not  recognized.  It  is 
necessary  to  cause  the  subject  to  pass  before  the  mind;  to 
render  clear  what  is  obscure,  to  recall  what  is  latent,  to  bring 
together  the  scattered  fragments,  and  thus  obtain  a  general 


Sec.  19  INVENTION.  37 

idea  of  the  main  thoughts  which  should  constitute  the  develop- 
ment of  the  subject.  The  means  by  which  this  is  accom- 
plished is  called  meditation. 

What  included  in  ? — It  includes  two  distinct  mental  opera- 
tions : 

1.  Recollection,  or  the  gathering  of  the  facts  and  principles 
involved  in  the  subject  or  connected  with  it. 

2.  Selection,  or  the  choosing  of  such  as  are  suited  to  the 
nature  and  end  of  the  discourse. 

19.  Recollection. — The  first  step  of  the  writer,  after  choos- 
ing his  subject,  is  to  recall  whatever  he  has  read,  or  learned, 
or  thought  that  relates  to  it, — all  the  facts  and  principles  in- 
volved in  it  or  connected  with  it. 

This  process  is  governed  by  what  are  called  the  laws  of 
association.  No  thought  arises  in  the  mind  entirely  isolated; 
each  brings  with  it  a  number  of  related  ones.  The  thought 
of  an  effect  suggests  that  of  a  cause,  the  thought  of  an  end 
suggests  that  of  a  means,  the  thought  of  one  object  suggests 
another  resembling  it  or  differing  from  it,  etc.  When  we 
concentrate  our  attention  upon  any  subject,  we  bring  it  with 
greater  distinctness  and  vividness  before  consciousness,  and, 
at  the  same  time,  awaken  a  number  of  accessory  ideas. 

Our  success  in  gathering  from  the  materials  in  our  posses- 
sion what  suits  our  purpose  depends  upon  our  power  of  con- 
tinuous thinking.  The  first  suggestions  are  generally  obscure, 
superficial,  and  commonplace.  It  requires  perseverance  to 
extort  from  the  mind  its  treasures.  By  prolonged  brooding 
over  the  subject  our  interest  in  it  increases,  and  both  the  sug- 
gestive faculty  and  the  judgment  act  more  vigorously.  Xew 
relations  are  detected,  new  combinations  are  formed,  new 
applications  are  discovered,  and  the  subject  with  all  its  quali- 
ties and  parts  and  associated  ideas  is  brought  distinctly  before 
the  mind. 

The  young  writer  needs  to  be  cautioned  against  being  over- 
scrupulous and  systematic  in  conducting  this  process.  He 


38  MATTER  OF  A  DISCOURSE.  Sec.  19 

should  not  allow  the  critical  powers  to  cramp  the  suggestive. 
Having  set  clearly  before  himself  the  end  he  Avishes  to  realize, 
let  him  yield  himself  to  the  subject  and  to  the  impressions  that 
it  makes  upon  him,  and  abandon  himself  boldly  to  the  current 
of  his  thoughts.  They  will  not  arise  in  the  shape  or  order  in 
which  they  will  appear  in  the  finished  composition.  Many  of 
them  will  be  incorrect,  inappropriate,  defective.  But  he  should 
not  chill  the  ardor  of  thought  by  pausing  to  separate  the  true 
from  the  false,  the  suitable  from  the  unsuitable,  or  to  estimate 
the  importance  of  the  several  thoughts  and  to  assign  them 
their  place.  Let  him  first  gather  his  materials ;  afterwards  he 
can  examine  and  sift  them.  If  he  attempt  to  combine  the  two 
operations,  the  flow  of  ideas  will  be  checked,  and  many  valua- 
ble thoughts  will  be  lost. 

It  is  advisable  to  write  down  the  thoughts  as  they  are 
suggested,  to  aid  in  remembering  them  and  to  facilitate  the 
difficult  process  of  selection. 

20.  Selection. — By  the  process  just  described  a  great 
amount  of  materials  has  been  accumulated,  not  all  of  which, 
however,  can  be  incorporated  into  the  discourse.  The  writer's 
next  step  is  to  select  from  this  mass  what  suits  his  purpose. 
This  is  often  a  matter  of  great  difficulty  and  frequent  discour- 
agement; he  does  not  know  what  to  choose  out  of  the  crowd 
of  particulars,  and  sees  no  way  of  bringing  order  out  of  the 
confusion. 

Selection  is  an  act  of  the  judgment.  There  are  certain 
characteristics  or  qualities  the  presence  of  which  in  an  idea 
justifies  or  requires  its  admission  into,  and  the  absence  of 
which  requires  its  exclusion  from  a  discourse  5  selection  con- 
sists in  examining  the  various  ideas  that  have  been  gathered 
to  find  whether  they  have  these  essential  marks. 

The  first  inquiry  is,  Are  they  true  ?  The  second,  Are  they 
adapted  to  the  nature  and  end  of  the  discourse  I 

Whatever  is  false,  or  appears  to  be  false,  weakens,  if  it  does 
not  destroy,  the  effect  of  a  production  designed  to  enlighten, 
convince,  or  persuade.  All  the  notions,  judgments,  and  rea- 


Sec.  20  INVENTION.  39 

soilings  must  be  scrutinized,  and  the  erroneous  statements 
and  fallacious  reasonings  be 'rejected.  AVith  these  should  be 
rejected  also  whatever  is  wanting  in  subjective  truth,  i.  e., 
whatever  is  not  in  harmony  with  the  writer's  belief  and  feel- 
ings, or  is  contrary  to  his  experience. 

It  is  not  enough  that  the  thoughts  be  true,  they  must 
also  have  the  quality  of  adaptation.  This  includes  several 
things : 

1.  Adaptation  to  the  particular  kind  of  discourse.     The 
principle  of  selection  is  not  the  same  for  all  kinds  of  composi- 
tion.    The  effect  of  a  work  is  often  injured  by  the  intrusion  of 
matter  that  is  appropriate  only  to  one  of  an  entirely  different 
nature  5  as,  for  instance,  when  purely  didactic  or  purely  poetical 
matter  is  introduced  into  a  discourse  the  aim  of  which  is  to 
move  the  will. 

2.  Adaptation  to  the  reader.    A  writer  must  choose  what  is 
suitable  to  the  condition  and  requirements  of  those  whom  he 
addresses,  and  will  often  have  to  reject  what  to  himself  seems 
more  important.     The  materials  selected  for  an  essay  or  trea- 
tise intended  for  popular  instruction  are  different  from  those  of 
a  scientific  work  addressed  to  a  limited  class  of  intelligent 
readers. 

3.  The  different  thoughts  are  to  be  examined  as  to  their 
mutual  dependence.     The  scattered  related  thoughts  are  to  be 
brought  together  and  combined  into  more  comprehensive  state- 
ments.    And  from  them  are  to  be  chosen  the  main  ideas 
essential  to  the  development  of  the  subject. 

Result  of  the  process. — As  the  result  of  the  whole  process 
the  writer  obtains  what  is  often  called  the  idea  of  the  dis- 
course, by  which  is  meant  a  general  view  of  the  leading 
thoughts  that  should  enter  into  it.  These  thoughts  are  still 
of  a  very  general  character,  and  are  not  in  tlie  order  which 
the  nature  of  the  discourse  requires.  They  are  next  to  be 
suitably  arranged  and  then  expanded  into  their  subordinate 
ideas.  These  two  processes  will  be  treated  of  under  the  heads 
of  Disposition  and  Amplification. 


4=0  MATTER  OF  A  DISCOUESE.  Sec.  21 

21.  Systematic  Meditation. — The  process  of  meditation 
described  above  (Sees.  17-19)  is  called  natural  or  free,  because 
the  order  of  thoughts  is  determined  by  the  natural  laws  of  the 
association  of  ideas.  There  is  another  kind  of  meditation 
called  logical,  or  systematic,  which  is  a  regulated,  methodical 
procedure.  It  consists  in  proposing  a  series  of  questions  with 
reference  to  the  subject  and  endeavoring  to  answer  them. 

Topics. — To  aid  in  this,  what  are  called  topics  are  em- 
ployed. These  are  certain  yery  general  notions  which  afford 
points  of  view  from  which  to  contemplate  a  given  subject. 
By  bringing  these  notions  in  succession  before  the  mind  and 
applying  them  to  the  subject  to  be  examined,  we  can  view  it 
in  its  parts  and  relations. 

The  topics  are  of  two  kinds,  general  and  special.  We  can 
frame  questions  that  are  applicable  to  a  great  variety  of  ob- 
jects; e.  #.,  What  is  it? — by  which  we  obtain  its  definition 
or  description.  What  is  its  cause?  With  what  can  it  be 
compared  ?  etc.  Besides  these  general  topics,  there  are  others 
which  are  used  in  certain  classes  of  subjects.  One  series  of 
questions  is  used  when  the  subject  is  an  event,  another  when 
it  is  a  person,  another  when  it  is  a  general  notion.  Thus, 
with  reference  to  a  person  the  questions  would  be  concerning 
his  nation,  age,  rank,  employment,  character,  etc. 

With  respect  to  an  event,  the  questions  would  be  as  to 
time,  place,  parties  engaged,  causes,  effects,  attendant  circum- 
stances, etc. 

Their  utility. — It  is  manifest  that  every  one  must  use  some 
of  these  topics  in  writing.  But  there  is  a  great  disagreement 
with  respect  to  the  utility  of  preparing  and  using  full  schemes 
or  lists  of  topics.  This  artificial  method  of  invention  has  a 
prominent  place  in  the  ancient  rhetorics,  but  has  been  very 
generally  excluded  from  the  modern.  There  is  no  doubt,  how- 
ever, that  although  it  is  liable  to  abuse,  it  can  be  employed 
with  profit  in  a  course  of  rhetorical  discipline. 

The  use  of  topics  does  not  exempt  from  the  necessity  of 


Sec.  22  INVENTION.  41 

patient  reflection.  They  are  not  thoughts,  but  mere  hints  to 
guide  our  thinking,  to  indicate  the  direction  in  which  we  are 
to  look  for  thoughts.  They  are  of  but  little  service  to  those 
who  have  already  studied  the  subject  scientifically,  for  these 
have  a  complete  scheme  of  topics  in  the  science ;  but  to  begin- 
ners they  are  necessary.  To  them  the  subject  is  at  first  vague 
and  confused :  their  greatest  difficulty  is  to  know  what  to  look 
for.  A  properly  prepared  scheme  of  topics  assists  them  in 
giving  order  and  distinctness  to  their  thoughts,  by  limiting  the 
extent  of  the  field,  by  making  prominent  the  points  to  be 
noticed,  and  by  marking  out  a  path  in  which  their  thoughts 
may  proceed. 

It  is  not  meant  that  this  topical  meditation  should  be  sub- 
stituted for  the  natural.  Its  use  is,  (1)  to  prepare  for  the 
natural  by  giving  a  general  view  of  the  subject,  and  by  bring- 
ing to  notice  its  different  sides ;  and  (2)  to  supplement  it,  by 
discovering  whether  any  essential  points  have  been  neglected. 

The  use  of  topics  will  be  explained  in  considering  the  ele- 
mentary forms  of  discourse.  (Part  III.) 

22.  Reading  as  an  aid  to  Invention, — When  the  subject 
admits  of  it,  reading  upon  the  same  or  upon  related  subjects 
should  be  connected  with  meditation.  Its  uses  are :  first,  to 
stimulate  the  suggestive  faculty ;  secondly,  to  supply  the  defi- 
ciencies in  our  knowledge. 

Method  of  Reading. — 1.  The  general  rule  is,  that  it  should 
precede  writing  and  follow  meditation ;  or  as  it  is  expressed 
by  Jean  Paul  Eichter,  "  Never  write  upon  a  subject  without 
having  first  read  yourself  full  of  it,  and  never  read  without 
having  first  thought  yourself  hungry."  Gibbon  gives  the  same 
advice.  "  After  a  rapid  glance,"  he  tells  us,  "  on  the  subject 
and  distribution  of  a  new  book,  I  suspend  the  reading  of  it, 
which  I  only  resume  after  having  examined  the  subject  in  all 
its  relations ;  after  having  called  up  in  my  solitary  walks  all 
that  I  have  read,  or  thought,  or  learned  in  regard  to  the 
subject  of  the  whole  book  or  of  some  chapter  in  particular.  I 

Rhet.  4 


42  MATTER  OF  A  DISCOURSE.  Sec,  22 

thus  place  myself  in  a  condition  to  estimate  what  the  author 
may  add  to  my  general  stock  of  knowledge,  and  I  am  thus 
sometimes  favorably  disposed  by  the  accordance,  sometimes 
armed  by  the  opposition  of  our  views." 

By  previous  meditation,  the  end  we  have  in  view  in  reading 
is  more  firmly  fixed,  and  the  mind  is  less  liable  to  be  diverted 
to  foreign  matters,  or  into  vague,  general  reading.  Beading 
is  also  rendered  more  suggestive  and  profitable.  When  the 
mind  is  occupied  with  a  subject,  it  detects  quickly  whatever 
is  related  to  it,  and  finds  materials  in  the  most  unexpected 
quarters.  There  are  few  books  that  will  not  suggest  some- 
thing new  and  appropriate  to  a  full  mind. 

2.  The  reading  should  be  varied.     By  seeing  how  the  same 
subject  is  treated  by  diiferent  and  opposing  authors,  new  views 
are  obtained,  and  our  knowledge  becomes  more  comprehen- 
sive. 

3.  The  thoughts  gathered  or  suggested  should  be  written 
down  in  clear,  precise  statements.     If  only  general  impres- 
sions are  received,  reading  will  only  confuse  and  burden  the 
mind. 

4.  The  materials  gathered  must  be  made  our  own  by  vigor- 
ous thought.     They  must  be  sifted;    what  suits  our  purpose 
must  be  selected,  and,  by  prolonged  meditation,  be  combined 
and  brought  into  harmony  with  our  own  stores; — be  fused 
into  them,  modifying  them  and  in  turn  being  modified  by 
them.     In  this  way  only  can  the  thoughts  of  others  become 
our  own ;  they  are  otherwise  but  lumber  stored  in  the  memory, 
and  can  not  be  transferred  to  our  own  writings  without  render- 
ing us  liable  to  the  charge  of  plagiarism. 

REMARKS. — (1)  To  what  extent  we  may  avail  ourselves  of  tlie  mental 
possessions  of  others  is  a  question  of  morals.  The  two  extremes  of  false 
originality  and  of  plagiarism  are  to  be  avoided.  He  who  will  make  no 
use  of  what  others  have  done  will  not  be  likely  to  give  to  the  world  any- 
thing valuable.  Nothing  is  easier  and  more  worthless  than  the  originality 
of  ignorance.  Our  greatest  authors  have  borrowed  most  freely;  but,  as 
Dryden  says  of  Ben  Jonson,  "they  invade  authors  like  monarchs." 

(2)  "I  call  that  the  best  theme/'  says  Dr.  Arnold,  "which  shows  that 


Sec.  23  DISPOSITION.  43 

the  boy  lias  read  and  thought  for  himself;  that  the  next  best  which  shows 
that  lie  has  read  several  books,  and  digested  what  he  has  read ;  and  that 
the  worst  which  shows  that  he  has  followed  but  one  book,  and  that  with- 
out reflection/' 


CHAPTER  III. 

DISPOSITION. 

23.  Disposition,  nature  of. — Disposition  consists  in  arrang- 
ing the  materials  furnished  by  meditation  in  such  an  order  and 
connection  as  correspond  with  the  special  character  and  aim 
of  the  discourse. 

It  presupposes  that  the  writer  has  gathered  the  main  ideas, 
and  decided  on  the  form  of  composition  in  which  lie  will  em- 
body them.  He  is  now  required  to  distribute  them  to  their 
appropriate  places,  fix  their  limits,  and  combine  them  into  a 
complete,  harmonious  whole. 

Importance  of. — There  can  be  no  discourse  without  order 
and  proportion.  A  discourse  is  not  a  series  of  independent 
propositions,  but  the  continuous  development  of  a  single  theme; 
its  effects  are  .produced  by  it  as  a  whole,  not  by  some  separate 
part.  However  numerous  the  thoughts  contained  in  it,  they 
must  all  be  subordinate  to  one  leading  thought,  all  be  mutu- 
ally dependent  as  members  of  one  organic  whole.  Only  in 
this  relation  to  each  other  and  to  the  entire  discourse,  do  they 
obtain  their  real  significance. 

It  is  not  sufficient  then  that  the  separate  statements  are 
intelligible ;  they  must  be  so  arranged  as  to  support  and  illus- 
trate each  other,  and  that  each  shall  contribute  to  the  total 
impression,  else  the  entire  thought  is  not  communicated  and 
the  full  import  of  the  parts  can  not  be  understood. 

REMARK. — The  importance  of  disposition  in  composition  has  been 
insisted  upon  both  by  the  most  competent  teachers  of  rhetoric  and  by 


44  MATTER  OF  A  DISCOURSE.  Sec.  23 

the  greatest  masters  of  style.  Rinne  pronounces  it  "  the  heart  of  the 
theory  of  style;"  and  the  famous  discourse  of  Bufibn  on  style  is  but  an 
expansion  of  the  same  idea;  he  defines  style,  as  the  order  and  movement 
we  give  to  our  thoughts.  Originality,  according  to  Pascal,  consists  not  so 
much  in  the  newness  of  the  individual  thoughts  as  in  their  combination. 
"The  disposition  of  the  materials,"  he  says,  "is  something  new.  In 
playing  tennis  both  use  the  same  ball,  but  one  places  it  better  than  the 
other.  It  might  as  well  be  objected  that  I  use  current  words ;  as  if  the 
same  thoughts  did  not  form  a  different  body  of  discourse  by  a  different 
arrangement,  just  as  the  same  words  differently  disposed  form  different 
thoughts."  To  the  same  effect  Vinet  says:  "Good  thoughts,  as  Pascal 
says,  are  abundant.  The  art  of  organizing  them  is  not  so  common.  It 
requires  sometimes  a  greater  capacity  to  find  the  relations  arid  appropri- 
ate places  of  these  organic  molecules.  We  should  perhaps  be  within 
bounds  in  saying  that  disposition  in  a  discourse  is  not  of  more  secondary 
importance  than  the  mode  of  aggregation  of  molecules  in  a  physical  sub- 
stance ;  this  mode  in  a  great  measure  constitutes  the  nature  of  the  body." 
[Homiletics,  Skinner's  translation,  p.  264.]  So  also  Whateley:  "Ar- 
rangement is  a  more  important  point  than  is  generally  supposed ;  indeed, 
it  is  not  perhaps  of  less  consequence  in  composition  than  in  the  military 
art ;  in  which  it  is  well  known,  that  with  an  equality  of  forces,  in  num- 
bers, courage,  and  every  other  point,  the  manner  in  which  they  are  drawn 
up,  so  as  either  to  afford  mutual  support,  or,  on  the  other  hand,  eve* 
to  impede  or  annoy  each  other,  may  make  the  difference  of  victory  or 
defeat."  [Rhetoric,  p.  168.] 

24.  Preparation  of  the  Plan. — The  law  of  order  extends 
to  every  portion  of  the  composition;  to  the  combination  of 
ideas  in  the  sentences  as  well  as  to  the  more  complex  combi- 
nations of  the  principal  divisions.  But  before  proceeding  to 
the  arrangement  of  the  details,  the  writer  must  attend  to  the 
more  general  procedure  of  fixing  the  limits  and  determining 
the  contents  of  the  organic  parts  of  the  discourse,  which  is 
usually  called  preparing  the  plan. 

What  are  the  organic  parts  of  a  discourse  ? — The  organic- 
parts  of  a  discourse  are  the  introduction,  the  body  of  the  dis- 
course, and  the  conclusion. 

These  are  all  essential  parts  of  an  organic,  indivisible  whole. 
We  are  not  to  infer,  because  some  precede  and  others  follow 
and  we  can  separate  them  in  our  analysis,  that  they  are  hide- 


Sec.  24  DISPOSITION.  45 

pendent  of  each  other,  or  that  a  discourse  can  be  complete 
with  some  of  them  wanting.  It  is  the  same  with  a  discourse 
as  witli  a  syllogism.  AVe  can  separate  the  propositions  of  the 
latter,  and  each  will  express  a  distinct  and  intelligible  judg- 
ment, but  it  will  have  lost  its  peculiar  force  and  meaning  as  a 
part  of  the  syllogism.  So  the  introduction,  body  of  the  dis- 
course, and  conclusion,  are  all  integrant  parts  of  a  complex 
but  single  and  simultaneous  thought;  each  has  its  special 
purpose  to  subserve,  and  is  indispensable  to  the  development 
of  the  theme;  each  is  dependent  on  the  others,  and  out  of 
relation  to  them  loses  all  its  significance. 

What  contained  in  the  plan? — The  plan,  or  outline,  con- 
tains a  summary  statement,  in  their  proper  order  and  connec- 
tion, of  the  essential  ideas  of  the  introduction,  of  the  body  of 
the  discourse,  and  of  the  conclusion.  What  is  merely  explana- 
tory and  illustrative  is  excluded,  as  attention  to  mwnticu  will 
confuse  and  lead  astray,  and  defeat  the  purpose  for  which  the 
plan  is  made.  But  although  the  main  points  are  given  briefly, 
they  must  be  given  with  the  utmost  clearness  and  precision. 
The  divisions  and  subdivisions  should  be  carefully  marked,  and 
be  so  formed  that  the  relation  of  the  parts  to  each  other  and 
to  the  theme  can  be  easily  perceived  and  remembered. 

The  necessity  of  preparing  one, — Without  a  clearly  con- 
ceived plan,  a  writer  is  not  prepared  to  treat  of  a  subject  of 
any  degree  of  complexity.  He  can  not  select  from  the  thoughts 
that  occur  to  him  those  that  are  appropriate,  nor  give  them 
their  place;  he  will  omit  many  essential  ideas  and  exhibit 
others  of  them  imperfectly,  while  subordinate  ones  will  be  dis- 
proportionately expanded;  he  can  not  avoid  wandering  from 
his  theme,  and  resorting  to  repetitions  and  digressions.  The 
discourse,  in  its  want  of  clearness,  of  unity,  of  completeness, 
and  of  progress,  will  be  a  faithful  expression  of  the  uncertainty 
and  confusion  in  the  writer's  mind. 

But  when  he  has  a  carefully  traced  plan  he  detects  at  once 
the  omission  of  any  essential  point ;  he  can  examine  the  parts 


46  MATTER  OF  A  DISCOURSE.  Sec,  24 

and  divisions,  and  discover  what  transitions  are  needed  to 
bind  them  together  and  secure  a  continuous  movement  of  the 
thoughts ;  he  has  before  him  all  the  main  ideas  by  amplifying 
which  he  will  give  fullness  arid  life  to  the  development  of  the 
theme ;  and  having  determined  the  proportion  of  the  various 
parts,  he  can  give  to  both  principal  and  accessory  ideas  their 
place  and  due  prominence.  He  will  proceed  with  ease  and 
confidence,  gaining  strength  as  he  advances;  "he  has  only 
pleasure  in  writing,"  says  Buffon,  "ideas  follow  each  other 
readily,  style  is  natural  and  easy ;  warmth,  springing  from 
this  pleasure,  diffuses  itself  every- where,  and  gives  life  to  each 
expression ;  all  is  more  and  more  animated ;  the  tone  rises ; 
the  objects  assume  color ;  and  sentiment  combining  with  light 
increases  it,  extends  it,  transfers  it  from  what  is  said  to  what 
is  to  be  said,  and  the  style  becomes  interesting  and  lumi- 
nous." 

But  to  secure  these  advantages,  the  plan  must  not  be  pre- 
pared until  after  prolonged  meditation.  We  can  arrange  only 
such  matter  as  we  have ;  and  if  from  the  want  of  serious  reflec- 
tion, our  thoughts  are  few,  or  trivial,  or  obscure,  the  disposition 
can  not  but  be  imperfect  and  comparatively  useless. 

25.  The  laws  of  Disposition  both  general  and  special, — 

Disposition  is  of  different  kinds  according  to  the  matter  and 
class  of  discourse.  A  method  of  arrangement  adapted  to  a 
scientific  treatise  will  not  suit  an  oration.  A  narration,  a 
description,  an  exposition,  and  an  argument,  require  each  a 
different  kind  of  disposition.  The  laws  for  these  special  modes 
of  disposition  will  be  given  in  their  appropriate  places.  Here 
we  shall  treat  of  the  general  laws  of  disposition. 

These  laws  relate  to  the  introduction,  the  body  of  a  dis- 
course, the  conclusion,  and  the  transitions. 

26.  The  nature  and  purpose  of  the  Introduction. — The 

introduction  is  a  natural  and  necessary  part  of  the  discourse, 
although  it  is  more  prominent  and  extended  in  some  works 
than  in  others.  We  see,  for  instance,  in  the  briefest  essay 


Sec.  26  DISPOSITION.  47 

how  much  depends  on  the  aspect  of  the  subject  that  is  first 
presented. 

The  peculiar  purposes  of  the  introduction  are : 

1.  To  prepare  the  reader  to  apprehend  the  precise  point  to 
which  his  attention  is  to  be  directed,  and  to  understand  what 
is  contained  in  the  body  of  the  discourse. 

Whether  we  describe,  narrate,  or  prove,  we  must  presuppose 
that  our  readers  are  acquainted  with  facts  and  principles  con- 
nected with  the  theme,  which  can  not  form  a  part  of  the  body 
of  the  discourse.  AVithout  this  preliminary  knowledge  our 
statements,  explanations,  and  arguments  will  be  imperfectly 
understood.  If  then  the  development  of  the  theme  is  to  pro- 
ceed naturally  and  without  interruption,  those  ideas  and  truths 
on  which  it  depends  must  first  be  communicated  to  the  reader. 
If  Ave  wish  to  describe  an  object,  we  may  begin  by  giving  the 
class  to  which  it  belongs;  if  we  narrate  an  event,  we  may 
recount  briefly  what  preceded;  if  we  wish  to  establish  the 
truth  of  a  proposition,  we  may  introduce  the  argument  by 
stating  some  more  general  truth  involving  it  or  connected 
with  it. 

Ex. — Hallum  in  his  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe,  in  the 
15th,  16th,  and  17th  Centuries,  thus  introduces  his  subject : 

"  Although  the  subject  of  these  volumes  does  not  comprehend  the  lit- 
erary history  of  Europe  anterior  to  the  commencement  of  the  fifteenth 
century  ...  it  appears  necessary  to  prefix  such  a  general  retro- 
spect of  the  state  of  knowledge  for  some  preceding  ages  as  will  illustrate 
its  subsequent  progress." 

2.  To  render  the  reader  disposed  to  attend  to  the  presenta- 
tion of  the  subject. 

The  mind  of  the  reader  will,  at  first,  often  be  occupied  with 
other  thoughts,  and  indifferent  to  the  subject,  and  often  will  be 
prejudiced  against  it.  It  requires  caution  and  skill  to  lead 
him  into  a  new  and  foreign  field  of  thought.  Unless  we  can 
gain  his  attention,  and  render  him  favorably  disposed,  no  ex- 
planations or  arguments  can  produce  any  impression  upon 
him. 


48  MATTER  OF  A  DISCOURSE.  Sec,  27 

27.  We  have  to  consider  the  rules  for  the  contents  of  the 
introduction  and  for  its  structure : 

Contents  of  the  Introduction. — L  The  matter  of  the  in- 
troduction must  be  an  idea  or  thought  that  is  closely  connected 
with  the  theme,  and  will  conduct  to  it  by  a  short  and  natural 
process. 

It  should  not  be  one  that  belongs  to  the  contents  of  the 
theme  and  has  its  place  properly  in  the  body  of  the  discourse, 
rior  one  so  general  and  remote  as  to  require  a  long  process  of 
thought  before  the  theme  is  reached;  but  one  that  is  distinct 
from  the  main  idea  of  the  discourse,  and,  at  the  same  time,  in 
close  contact  with  it. 

It  must  have  a  real  connection  with  the  main  idea,  and  lead 
to  it  naturally  without  any  appearance  of  artifice  or  force. 
When  the  connection  is  fanciful  or  arbitrary,  it  neither  pre- 
pares for  what  follows  nor  contributes  to  the  development  of 
the  subject,  but  rather  diverts  the  mind  from  it.  It  is  a 
mistake  to  suppose,  that  any  striking  thought  may  be  adapted 
by  the  ingenuity  of  the  writer  to  the  purposes  of  an  introduc- 
tion. 

It  must  not  be  too  narrow ;  it  must  prepare  for  the  entire 
discussion  and  not  for  some  division  or  head. 

It  follows,  that  the  same  introduction  can  not  be  equally 
well  suited  to  a  number  of  discourses.  The  same  general 
thought  may  be  employed,  but  the  application  will  give  it,  in 
each  case,  an  individual  character  that  makes  it  appropriate  to 
the  one  discourse  and  to  no  other. 

2.  The  introduction  must  contain  only  what  is  easily  under- 
stood and  will  be  readily  admitted.     What  needs  explanation 
and  proof  is  not  suitable.     We  must  proceed  from  the  known 
and  admitted  to  the  unknown  and  disputed. 

3.  It  must  awaken  interest  and  curiosity,  and  direct  the 
mind  to  what  follows.     The  principal  offenses  against  this  rule 
are  selecting  trite  reflections  and  mere  truisms,  and  the  oppo- 
site fault  of  choosing  abstract  ideas  or  what  requires  subtlety 
of  thought.     Concrete  ideas,  as  they  appeal  n>ore  directly  to 


Sec.  28  DISPOSITION.  40 

the  imagination  and  feelings,  are  better  suited  to  interest,  and 
when  circumstances  allow,  are  to  be  preferred. 

Structure  of  the  Introduction. — The  structure  of  the  in- 
troduction should  correspond  to  its  purpose  and  subordinate 
rank. 

As  it  does  not  exist  for  itself,  but  only  to  prepare  for  what 
follows,  its  main  idea  should  be  expanded  no  further  than  is 
conducive  to  this  end.  An  exhaustive,  systematic  presenta- 
tion of  it  would  be  out  of  place.  The  greatest  possible  con- 
ciseness and  simplicity  are  required ;  an  undue  expansion  of  a 
subordinate  part  destroys  the  harmony  and  proportion  of  the 
whole  and  detracts  from  the  main  idea.  Its  length  will,  of 
course,  be  determined  by  the  nature  and  extent  of  the  compo- 
sition ;  it  is  always  too  long  when  it  contains  any  thing  that 
is  unnecessary. 

The  greatest  difficulty  in  the  art  of  framing  an  introduction 
is  to  secure  a  natural  and  easy  transition  to  the  body  of  the 
discourse.  That  is  the  most  perfect  out  of  which  the  theme 
seems  immediately  to  grow. 

When  to  be  prepared. — The  introduction  is  usually  the  last 
thing  prepared.  We  can  not  be  sure  of  selecting  an  appro- 
priate introductory  idea  until  the  subject  has  been  carefully 
studied  in  its  various  parts  and  relations.  Cicero  tells  us,  and 
what  he  says  applies  to  all  kinds  of  composition, — that  it  was 
his  custom  first  to  plan  and  digest  all  the  materials  of  his  dis- 
course, and  last  of  all  to  consider  with  what  he  should  begin ; 
giving  as  his  reason,  that  whenever  he  endeavored  to  invent 
the  introduction  first,  nothing  occurred  to  him  but  what  was 
trifling  and  commonplace.  It  is  not  meant  that  it  should  be 
written  last.  As  a  general  rule,  it  is  advisable  in  writing  to 
finish  the  introduction  before  proceeding  to  the  body  of  the 
discourse. 

28.  The  Body  of  the  Discourse. — As  the  theme  arises 
naturally  out  of  the  introduction,  so  the  body  of  the  discourse 

Rbet.  5 


50  MATTEK  OF  A  DISCOURSE.  See.  28 

is  but  the  expansion  of  the  theme.  It  contains  the  facts,  prin- 
ciples, arguments,  etc.,  that  are  needed  to  explain,  prove,  and 
enforce  the  main  idea.  It  is  the  office  of  disposition  to  select 
the  materials  adapted  to  this  part  and  to  form  them  into  a 
connected  whole.  It  is  concerned  with  the  discovery  and 
exhibition  of  the  relations  of  thoughts.  As  these  relations  are 
infinitely  various,  it  is  evident  that  the  principles  to  be  laid 
down  must  be  of  the  most  general  character.  They  may  be 
embraced  under  two  heads : 

1.  The  two  general  methods  of  communicating  thought. 

2.  Eules  for  the  disposition  of  the  body  of  the  discourse. 

29.  Two  methods  of  communicating  thought. — There  are 
two  general  methods  of  communicating  thought, — the  analytic 
and  the  synthetic.  These  include  all  the  others ;  whether  we 
describe,  narrate,  explain,  or  prove,  we  can  adopt  one  or  the 
other.  It  is  important  that  the  student  of  rhetoric  should 
understand  their  nature. 


The  Analytic. — This  method  is  also  called  the  regressive, 
and  sometimes  the  inductive.  It  assumes  various  forms  ac- 
cording to  the  nature  of  the  subject.  We  may  present  first  a 
complex  whole,  and  then  resolve  it  into  its  constituent  parts  or 
elements,  just  as  the  chemist  analyzes  a  mineral.  We  may 
state  the  conclusion  first  and  then  inquire  its  reason,  and 
then  the  reason  of  this  premise,  and  continue  the  process  until 
wre  have  reached  a  premise  that  does  not  require  proof.  We 
may  state  particular  facts  and  observations  and  ascend  from 
them  to  general  notions  or  truths,  or  to  definitions.  We  may 
give  results,  and  then  investigate  the  causes,  and  followT  back 
the  chain  until  we  deem  it  unnecessary  to  proceed  further.  In 
all  these  wre  follow  the  Analytic  method,  which  thus  is  seen  to 
be  the  process  by  which  we  pass  from  facts  to  principles,  from 
the  particular  to  the  general,  from  the  complex  and  compound 
to  the  simple  and  elementary. 

The  Synthetic. — The  synthetic  method  is  precisely  the  re- 


Sec.  29  DISPOSITION.  51 

verse.  As  in  the  analytic  we  proceed  up  the  stream  to  the 
source,  in  the  synthetic  we  descend  the  stream  from  the  source. 
It  is  also  called  the  progressive,  sometimes,  the  deductive 
method.  We  may  bring  together  the  elements  and  cause 
them  to  combine  into  a  whole,  as  the  chemist  causes  certain 
physical  elements  to  unite  and  form  a  compound  substance. 
In  geometry,  for  example,  we  begin  with  points,  lines,  and 
angles,  and  proceed  to  the  complex  figures.  We  may  lay  down 
a  general  principle  and  then  deduce  from  it  its  consequences. 
We  may  give  first  a  general  notion  and  then  proceed  to 
the  species  contained  under  it  and  continue,  if  need  be,  until 
we  reach  the  individual;  or  we  may  state  the  cause  and 
then  follow  out  its  effects.  Thus  in  synthesis  we  proceed  from 
the  elementary  to  the  complex,  from  principles  to  facts,  from 
cause  to  effect,  etc. 

Ex. — The  following  example,  taken  from  Hoffman,  exhibits  the  differ- 
ent methods.  The  theme  being,  "  What  were  the  effects  of  the  Pelopon- 
nesian  war  upon  Athens?"  We  suppose  that  the  writer  has  by  medita- 
tion and  reading  gathered  as  the  main  ideas  the  following :  1.  Athens 
was  obliged  to  change  her  constitution ;  2.  The  long  walls  were  broken 
down  ;  3.  Her  navy  was  reduced  ;  4.  She  lost  her  allies ;  5.  Her  popula- 
tion was  diminished;  6.  Her  commerce  was  destroyed;  7.  The  morals  of 
the  people  were  corrupted ;  8.  She  became  dependent  on  Sparta. 

By  comparing  these  separate  propositions,  he  finds  that  he  can  classify 
them  ;  some  of  the  effects  refer  to  the  internal  condition  of  Athens,  some 
to  her  foreign  relations ;  some  to  her  material,  others  to  her  political,  and 
others  to  her  moral  condition.  By  this  process  of  comparing  and  combin- 
ing he  ascends  from  particular  to  more  general  statements,  until  he 
reaches  at  length  the  general  proposition,  that  all  the  effects  were  inju- 
rious. The  process  has  been  one  of  analytic  thinking.  If  now  the  writer 
wishes  to  conduct  his  readers  through  a  process  similar  to  that  by  which 
he  reached  his  conclusion,  he  will  arrange  his  materials  ill  such  an  order 
as  follows : 

The  Peloponnesian  War, 

a.  Destroyed  the  commerce  of  Athens, 

b.  Diminished  her  population, 

1.  And  so  weakened  her  material  power. 


52  MATTEE  OF  A  DISCOURSE.  Sec.  29 

a.  Corrupted  the  morals  of  her  inhabitants, 
5.  Overthrew  her  constitution, 

2.  And  so  enfeebled  her  moral  power. 

I.  Hence  the  effects  of  the  war  on  the  internal  condition  of  Athens 
were  injurious. 

a.  It  diminished  her  navy, 
1).  Destroyed  her  ports, 

1.  And  so  exposed  her  to  assaults  from  all  her  enemies. 

a.  Deprived  Athens  of  her  allies, 
fc.  Made  her  dependent  upon  Sparta, 

2.  And  so  degraded  her  from  the  leadership. 

II.  Hence  the  effects  of  the  war  on  the  external  relations  of  Athens 
were  injurious. 

Consequently,  the  results  of  the  war  to  Athens  were  only  injurious. 

Here  the  method  is  rigidly  Analytic. 

If  the  writer  wishes  to  present  his  subject  according  to  the  Synthetic 
method,  his  mode  of  proceeding  will  be  just  the  reverse.  What  formed 
the  conclusion  of  the  preceding  process  will  now  form  the  starting-point, 
and  the  disposition  will  be  as  follows : 

THEME. — The  effects  of  the  Pelopoimesian  war  on  Athens  were  all 
injurious ;  for  it, 

I.  Enfeebled  her  internally  : 

1.  In  her  material  power. 

a.  As  to  her  wealth — destroying  her  commerce. 
1).  As  to  her  population — diminishing  it. 

2.  In  her  moral  power. 

a.  By  the  demoralization  of  the  people, 
fc.  By  the  change  of  her  constitution. 

II.  Enfeebled  her  in  her  foreign  relations. 

1.  Destroyed  her  means  of  defense. 

a.  By  diminishing  her  navy. 

~b.  By  the  destruction  of  the  long  walls. 

2.  Deprived  her  of  her  place  as  leader. 


Sec.  30  DISPOSITION.  53 

a.    By  tin*  loss  of  her  allies. 

Z>.   By  her  dependence  on  Sparta. 

30.  Comparative  advantages  of  the  two  methods. — Both 
methods  have  their  advantages  and  disadvantages.  Which  to 
prefer  will  be  determined  by  our  special  object  in  writing. 

The  analytic  is  the  longer  process  and  is  liable  to  become 
tedious.  It  has  the  advantage  of  presenting  truths  in  the 
order  in  which  they  are  discovered.  The  reader  begins  with 
actual  facts,  and  understands  each  step  as  he  advances.  He 
obtains  a  greater  feeling  of  certainty,  while  at  the  same  time 
his  mind  is  stimulated  to  greater  activity.  There  is  also 
always  intellectual  pleasure  in  ascending  from  the  particular 
to  the  general,  and  something  of  the  pleasure  of  discovery 
when  the  final  result  is  reached.  It  is  specially  suitable  for 
introducing  a  science,  as  it  begins  with  what  is  known,  ex- 
hibits its  general  drift,  and  enables  the  student  to  understand 
the  details.  It  is  also  the  natural  method  for  such  works  as 
propose  to  investigate  notions  and  their  relations,  to  resolve 
difficulties,  to  remove  doubts  and  answer  objections. 

The  synthetic  method  has  the  disadvantage  of  beginning 
with  the  abstract  and  general ;  the  reader  can  not  see  the  use 
of  the  elements  that  are  given  to  him,  and,  not  knowing  their 
relation  to  the  whole  of  which  they  are  parts,  can  not  fully 
comprehend  them.  It  has  the  advantage  of  brevity,  and  is 
the  mode  best  adapted  to  presenting  knowledge  in  a  systematic 
form  so  as  to  exhibit  the  relations  of  the  separate  facts  and 
principles  to  each  other  and  to  the  entire  system.  It  is 
hence  frequently  called  the  scientific,  systematic,  or  dogmatic 
method.  It  is  specially  suited  to  such  works  as  aim  to  com- 
municate knowledge  in  a  compendious  form  that  can  be  re- 
tained in  the  memory.  It  is  also  the  natural  method  of 
history,  and  the  one  usually  employed  in  oratory. 

REMARK. — The  two  methods  may  be  united,  and  in  works  of  any  size 
generally  are.  The  analytic  method  may  be  adopted  for  the  general  dis- 
cussion, and  the  synthetic  for  the  treatment  of  the  parts;  or  the  reverse. 
This  may  be  easily  exemplified  by  using  the  scheme  ^iven  in  section  29. 


54  MATTEK  OF  A  DISCOUKSE.  Sec,  31 

31.  General  rules  for  the  disposition  of  the  Body  of  the 
Discourse. — The  following  general  rules  are  to  be  observed  in 
the  disposition  of  the  body  of  the  discourse,  whatever  be  the 
mode  of  presentation  adopted : 

1.  It  should  omit  nothing  essential  and  contain  nothing  un- 
essential; nothing  merely  connected  with  the  theme  and  not 
derived  from  it.     For  example,  if  the  theme  is,  "  Warnings 
against  false  conscientiousness,"  and  the  writer  should  treat 
first,  of  the  nature  of  the  error;    secondly,  of  its  signs  and 
eifects  5  and,  thirdly,  of  the  reasons  why  it  should  be  avoided, 
the  division  would  violate  this  rule.     The  first  and  second 
heads  are  not  contained  in  the  theme  which  proposes  only 
warnings  against  the  error.     So  the  third  head  is  the  theme 
itself.     The  division  would  have  been  a  proper  one,  if  the 
theme  had  been,    "  False  conscientiousness ; "    as    it  would 
have   given  first,   its   nature;    secondly,    its    characteristics; 
thirdly,  its  eifects. 

2.  That  is  the  best  disposition  which  (provided  the  virtue  of 
adaptation  is  not  neglected)  exhibits  the  theme  from  different 
points  of  view,  and  contains  those  main  thoughts  the  develop- 
ment of  which  affords  the  greatest  variety  of  new  and  impor- 
tant truths.     There  is  a  great  difference  among  writers  in  this 
respect ;  some  give  only  superficial  views,  while  others  bring 
out  all  the  riches  of  their  subjects. 

3.  The  disposition  must  be  natural, — prescribed  by  the  nat- 
ure of  the  theme  not  imposed  from  without.     This  is  required 
by  the  nature  of  prose.     We  can  not  enlighten,  convince,  or 
persuade  when  the  connection  between  the  thoughts  is  not 
recognized  as  real  and  necessary.     This  rule  is  violated  by 
adopting  one  uniform  mode  of  arrangement  without  regard  to 
the  matter;  and  also  by  a  false  symmetry  which  divides  and 
combines  arbitrarily,  and  seeks  uniformity  in  the  number  and 
length  of  the    divisions  and  subdivisions  when  the  natural 
development  of  the  subject  does  not  require  it. 

4.  It  must  be  easily  comprehended  and  remembered.     A 
too  great  multiplication  of  divisions  and  subdivisions  should  be 
avoided,  as  it  burdens   the   memory  and  prevents  the  mind 


Sec.  32  DISPOSITION.  55 

from  obtaining  a  clear  view  of  the  whole.  The  various  parts 
should  be  distinct;  one  should  not  contain  what  belongs  to 
another;  and  the  limits  and  prominence  given  to  each  should 
be  determined  by  its  relative  importance.  Each  part  should 
contribute  to  the  clearness,  completeness,  certainty,  and  force 
of  the  other,  each  being  in  the  place  prepared  for  it  by  what 
preceded,  and  where  it  will  best  prepare  for  what  follows. 

32.  The  Conclusion. — The  conclusion  is  that  part  of  the 
discourse  in  which  the  development  of  the  theme  is  brought  to 
its  suitable  close,  and  a  distinct  impression  of  it  as  a  whole  is 
given  to  the  reader. 

An  essential  part. — Like  the  introduction,  it  is  more  prom- 
inent in  some  classes  of  compositions  than  in  others.  Its 
importance  is  greater  and  it  demands  a  more  elaborate  prepa- 
ration in  the  extended  discussion  of  complicated  subjects  and 
in  oratorical  discourse.  But  it  is  an  essential  part  of  every 
discourse. 

Without  it  the  good  impression  made  by  the  proper  disposi- 
tion of  the  preceding  parts  is  marred  and  many  of  its  results 
are  lost.  There  will  be  an  abruptness,  want  of  completeness, 
and  want  of  symmetry,  which  will  not  only  oifend  the  taste 
but  also  render  the  discourse  less  effective. 

It  is  the  writer's  aim  to  cause  the  reader  to  appropriate  his 
entire  thought  and  to  feel  the  force  of  its  complete  presenta* 
tion.  Without  the  conclusion  this  can  not  be  effected.  A 
number  of  thoughts  have  been  crowded  on  the  reader's  mind, 
to  each  of  which  in  succession  he  has  given  his  attention. 
Should  the  discussion  terminate  suddenly  he  is  left  with  his 
mind  occupied  with  some  subordinate  part,  some  subdivision, 
and  it  can  not  be  expected,  that,  without  aid  from  the  writer, 
he  will  recall  the  several  parts  and  gain  a  vivid  impression  of 
them  in  their  unity  or  practical  bearings.  It  is  the  writer's 
duty  to  put  him  in  a  position  to  do  this ;  to  enable  him  to 
gather  up  the  results;  to  see  what  has  been  gone  over,  what 
has  been  gained,  and  how  it  has  been  gained;  and  thus  to 


56  MATTEK  OF  A  DISCOURSE.  Sec.  32 

view  the  theme  in  the  light  thrown  upon  it  by  the  previous 
discussion.     This  is  the  office  of  the  conclusion. 

Qualities  of, — What  is  necessary  to  its  perfection  may  be 
inferred  from  what  has  been  said  of  its  end. 

1.  It  should  accord  with  the  nature  of  the  subject,  the  aim 
of  the  discourse,  and  the  manner  of  presentation.     It  should 
not  be  incongruous  either  in  matter  or  form. 

2.  Its  main  thought  should  be  one  that  concentrates  in  itself 
the  force  of  all  that  precedes,  or  at  least  brings  the  view  pre- 
sented, the  proposition  explained  or  proved,  the  resolution  to 
be  adopted,  before  the  mind  with  all  the  vividness  and  force 
that  can  be  derived  from  the  entire  discussion.     In  most  cases, 
a  condensed  summary  of  what  has  been  gained,  or  an  exhibi- 
tion of  the  unity  of  the  parts,  forms  the  most  appropriate  con- 
clusion. 

3.  All  abruptness  or  appearance  of  artifice  in  passing  from 
the   body   of  the   discourse   to   the   conclusion    ought    to  be 
avoided. 

33.  Transitions. — The  work  of  disposition  is  not  finished 
until  suitable  transitions  have  been  formed. 

By  transition,  in  its  widest  sense,  is  meant  the  passage 
from  one  part  of  a  discourse  to  another,  it  may  be  from  one 
organic  part  to  the  following,  or  from  one  division  or  subdivis- 
ion to  another. 

In  some  cases  the  connection  between  the  thoughts  is  so 
close  and  necessary  that  the  following  grows  immediately  out 
of  the  one  that  precedes  it,  and  no  intermediate  idea  is  needed 
to  show  their  relation.  But  this  seldom  occurs, — never  in 
extended  discussions  of  complicated  subjects,  or  long  narra- 
tives, or  where  there  are  digressions  and  amplifications.  There 
exists,  it  is  true,  a  real  and  necessary  connection  between  all 
the  parts ;  this  is  implied  in  the  work  of  disposition,  but  it  is 
not  always  easy  to  make  this  connection  apparent.  Usually, 
after  having  prepared  his  plan,  the  writer  finds  that  the  con- 
nection between  the  main  thoughts  is  remote ;  that  they  are 


Sec.  33  DISPOSITION.  57 


by  intervals,  so  that  if  left  in  this  form  the  discourse 
would  have  a  fragmentary  character,  and  could  not  be  readily 
understood  or  remembered. 

In  order  to  give  continuity  to  the  discourse  some  thoughts 
must  be  discovered  which  will  bind  the  parts  together  and 
unite  them  into  one  coherent  whole.  These  intermediate  ideas 
are  called  transitions,  in  the  narrow  sense  of  the  term.  They 
have  been  compared  to  the  joints  of  the  body.  Vinet  calls 
them  "  a  land  of  punctuation  on  a  large  scale  ;  "  as  punctua- 
tion serves  to  mark  the  intervals  and  the  relations  of  thoughts, 
so  transitions  serve  the  double  purpose  of  distinguishing  and 
uniting. 

The  most  important  transitions  are  that  from  the  introduc- 
tion to  the  body  of  the  discourse,  and  that  from  the  body  to 
the  conclusion.  The  former  is  the  more  difficult,  and  that  in 
which  most  failures  occur. 

Essential  qualities  of.  —  A  real  connection  betwreen  the 
parts  to  be  united  is  assumed.  An  attempt  to  show  a  connec- 
tion where  none  exists  will  but  make  the  incoherence  more 
glaring. 

1.  The  transition  must  contain  a  real  thought.     A  word 
caught  up  in  passing  from  one  division  or  paragraph  to  an- 
other, or  the  declaration  that  wre  now^  proceed  to  the  next  part 
or  division  is  not  a  transition.     It  often  consists  in  repeating 
what  wras  said,  or  in  a  concession  or  qualification. 

2.  This  thought  should  be  one  connected  with  the  two  which 
it  is  intended  to  unite.     It  must  look  to  what  precedes  it  and 
what  follows.     Its  points  of  contact  with  both  should  be  so 
plain  that  they  can  be  instantly  discovered.      Whatever  is 
abstruse,  subtle,  or  far-fetched  w^ould  obscure  the  connection 
instead  of  making  it  apparent. 

3.  When    the    reader    can    easily    supply    the    connecting 
thought  it  should  be  omitted.     Even  abruptness  is  better  than 
empty  commonplaces,  which  only  burden  the  discourse  and 
enfeeble  the  reader's  attention. 

4.  The  thought  must  not  be  expanded  further  than  is  neces- 


58  MATTER  OF  A  DISCOURSE.  Sec.  33 

saiy  to  accomplish  the  specific  purpose  for  which  it  is  used. 
When  it  passes  beyond  this  it  becomes  a  digression,  and  in- 
stead of  promoting,  interrupts  the  continuity  of  the  discourse. 

How  to  be  found. — No  rules  can  teach  the  art  of  finding 
suitable  transitions.  Much  depends  on  the  tact  of  the  writer. 
The  great  source  of  the  difficulty  found  by  beginners  in  this 
part  of  the  work  of  composition  is  the  want  of  a  mastery  of 
their  subject.  When  meditation  has  been  prolonged  and  faith- 
ful, and  the  plan  properly  made,  the  connecting  links  will 
soon  be  found. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

AMPLIFICATION. 

34.  Nature  of  Amplification. — By  the  preceding  processes 
of  invention  and  disposition  the  main  ideas  of  the  discourse 
have  been  selected  and  arranged  in  due  order;  the  course  of 
thought  in  its  beginning,  middle,  and  end  has  been  clearly 
marked  out.  But  only  a  very  general  outline  has  been  ob- 
tained ;  the  plan  is  but  a  meager  summary  of  the  points  to  be 
considered.  This  outline  is  now  to  be  filled  up.  The  writer 
must  take  up  each  of  the  main  ideas  laid  down  in  a  summary 
form  in  his  plan,  and  subject  it  to  the  same  processes  as  those 
to  which  he  has  subjected  the  original  leading  idea  of  the  dis- 
course. He  must  meditate  upon  it  and  develop  it;  he  must 
gather  the  subordinate  ideas,  i.  e.j  definitions,  descriptions, 
explications,  arguments,  comparisons,  etc.,  that  are  necessary 
to  exhibit  its  full  meaning  and  relative  importance.  By  tliis 
means  the  meager  abstract  is  converted  into  a  full,  vivid  exhi- 
bition of  the  subject.  This  process  is  called  amplification. 
It  must  not,  as  is  too  frequently  the  case,  be  confounded  with 
exaggeration,  idle  repetition,  or  the  heaping  up  of  insignificant 
circumstances.  It  may  be  defined,  the  process  of  gathering 


Sec.  34  AMPLIFICATION.  59 

and  arranging  such  subordinate  ideas  involved  in  or  connected 
with  the  main  ideas  given  in  the  plan,  as  are  necessary  to 
present  the  subject  with  the  greatest  possible  clearness,  force, 
and  completeness. 

Its  importance. — It  is  necessary  in  works  of  all  kinds. 

1.  Abstract,  summary  statements   are  not  intelligible   to 
most  persons,  and  can  never  affect  the  feelings  and  will.    We 
demand,  even  in  scientific  treatises,  that  the  writer  give  both 
logical  clearness  to  his  ideas  by  definitions  and  divisions,  and 
aesthetic  clearness  by  exhibiting  the  abstract  in  concrete  forms 
by  means  of  examples,  focts,  figures,  etc. 

Ex. — We  may  say,  in  brief  abstract  form,  the  Divine  Being  is  omni- 
present and  omniscient.  The  theologian  gives  logical  clearness  to  the 
thought  by  enumerating  the  notions  involved  in  omnipresence  and  omnis- 
cience ;  as,  presence  in  all  space,  knowledge  of  all  things  possible  and 
actual,  of  objects  animate  and  inanimate,  thoughts,  desires,  etc.  But  the 
Psalmist  exhibits  the  same  thought  with  aesthetic  clearness,  in  a  concrete 
form,  appealing  directly  to  the  imagination  and  the  feelings:  "Whither 
shall  I  go  from  thy  spirit  ?  or  whither  shall  I  flee  from  thy  presence  ?  If 
I  ascend  up  into  heaven,  thou  art  there  ;  if  I  make  my  bed  in  hell,  behold 
thou  art  there.  If  I  take  the  wings  of  the  morning  and  dwell  in  the  utter- 
most parts  of  the  sea ;  even  there  shall  thy  hand  lead  me  and  thy  right 
hand  defend  me.  If  I  say  surely  the  darkness  shall  cover  me,  even  the 
night  shall  be  light  about  me.  Yea,  the  darkness  hideth  not  from  thee ; 
but  the  night  sJiineth  as  the  day ;  the  darkness  and  the  light  are  both 
alike  to  thee." 

2.  The  mind  must  dwell  for  some  time  upon  a  thought 
before  it  can  receive  a  full  and  distinct  impression  of  it.     If  we 
have  an  important  truth  to  communicate,  we  can  not  content 
ourselves  with  a  bare  enunciation  of  it;    we  must  fix  the 
reader's  attention  upon  it,  and  give  him  time  to  comprehend 
it  and  feel  its  truth. 

R  EM  ARK.— The  importance  of  amplification  as  a  means  of  detaining 
the  mind  upon  a  subject,  and  so  allowing  the  reader  to  yield  to  its  influ- 
ence, is  very  well  stated  by  Whateley :  "It  is  remarked  by  anatomists 
that  the  nutritive  quality  is  not  the  only  requisite  in  food ;  that  a  certain 
degree  of  distention  of  the  stomach  is  required  to  enable  it  to  act  with  its 


60  MATTER  OF  A  DISCOURSE.  Sec.  34 

full  powers ;  and  that  it  is  for  this  reason  hay  or  straw  must  be  given  to 
horses,  as  well  as  corn,  in  order  to  supply  the  necessary  bulk.  Something 
analogous  to  this  takes  place  with  respect  to  the  generality  of  minds, 
which  are  incapable  of  thoroughly  digesting  and  assimilating  what  is  pre- 
sented to  them,  however  clearly,  in  a  very  small  compass.  Many  a  one  is 
ciipable  of  deriving  that  instruction  from  a  moderate  sized  volume  which 
lie  could  not  receive  from  a  very  small  pamphlet,  even  more  perspicuously 
written,  and  containing  every  thing  that  is  to  the  purpose.  It  is  neces- 
sary that  the  attention  be  detained  for  a  certain  time  on  the  subject ;  and 
persons  of  unphilosophical  mind,  though  they  can  attend  to  what  they 
read  or  hear,  are  unapt  to  dwell  upon  it  in  the  way  of  subsequent  medi- 
tation." 

35.  Means  of  Amplification. — It  is  impossible  to  give  a 
list  of  all  the  means  of  amplification.  It  would  include  all  the 
ways  by  which  logical  clearness  is  imparted  to  a  thought,  and 
by  which  a  thought  can  be  represented  vividly  to  the  imagina- 
tion. A  few  of  the  more  important  are  here  given,  which  will 
serve  to  exhibit  still  further  the  nature  and  importance  of  the 
process. 

Enumeration. — This  consists  in  decomposing  or  analyzing 
the  thought,  and,  instead  of  a  bare  statement,  giving  the 
details. 

If  it  is  a  notion,  its  qualities  or  parts  are  enumerated.  We 
may  define  it,  or  if  a  logical  definition  does  not  answer  the 
purpose,  we  may  give  a  fuller  enumeration  of  its  qualities ;  we 
may  resolve  it  into  the  classes  contained  under  it  ;  if  a  narra- 
tion or  description,  we  may  specify  the  particulars. 

Ex. — 1.  Freedom  may  be  defined,  "  Exemption  from  the  power  and 
control  of  others."  But  such  an  abstract  and  general  statement  will  not 
suit  the  purposes  of  the  orator ;  it  is  thus  amplified  by  Fox  in  one  of  his 
speeches :  "  Freedom  consists  in  the  safe  and  sacred  possession  of  a 
man's  property,  governed  by  laws  defined  and  certain ;  with  many  per- 
sonal privileges, — natural,  civil,  and  religious, — which  he  can  not  surren- 
der without  ruin  to  himself,  and  of  which  to  be  deprived  by  any  other 
power  is  despotism.'' 

2.  Cicero,  instead  of  simply  asserting  that  Pompey  was  a  great  general, 
amplifies  the  notion  by  enumerating  the  qualities  that  constitute  a  gen- 
eral :  "  Those  are  not  the  only  virtues  of  a  general  which  are  commonly 
thought  so.  It  is  not  courage  alone  which  forms  a,  great  leader,  but 


Sec.  35  AMPLIFICATION.  01 

industry  in  business,  intrepidity  in  dangers,  vigor  in  acting,  prudence  in 
concerting,  promptness  in  executing.  All  which  characters  appear  with 
frreatcr  luster  in  him  than  in  all  the  other  generals  we  ever  saw  or 
heard  of." 

3.  The  historian  might  briefly  state  the  fact,  that  the  fleet  of  William, 
after  being  for  a  short  time  in  great  danger,  reached  the  harbor  of  Torbay 
in  safety.  But  notice  how  Macaulay  amplifies  this  by  the  enumeration  of 
particulars:  "The  morning  of  the  fifth  of  November  was  hazy.  The  pilot 
of  the  Brill  could  not  discern  the  sea-marks,  and  carried  the  fleet  too  far 
to  the  west.  The  danger  was  great.  To  return  in  the  face  of  the  wind 
was  impossible.  Plymouth  was  the  next  port.  But  at  Plymouth  a  garri- 
son had  been  posted  under  the  command  of  the  Earl  of  Bath.  The  land- 
ing might  be  opposed,  and  a  check  might  produce  serious  consequences. 
There  could  be  little  doubt,  moreover,  that  by  this  time  the  royal  fleet 
had  got  out  of  the  Thames,  and  was  hastening  full  sail  down  the  river. 
Russell  saw  the  whole  extent  of  the  peril,  and  exclaimed  to  Bin-net,  'You 
may  go  to  your  prayers,  doctor.  All  is  over.'  At  that  moment  the  wind 
changed,  a  soft  breeze  sprang  up  from  the  south,  the  mist  dispersed,  the 
sun  shone  forth,  and,  under  the  mild  light  of  an  autumnal  noon,  the  fleet 
turned  back,  passed  round  the  lofty  cape  of  Berry  Head,  and  rode  safe 
into  the  harbor  of  Torbay." 

A  general  truth  is  amplified  by  enumerating  the  instances, 
or  particular  truths,  on  which  it  is  founded. 

Ex. — Addison  thus  amplifies  the  general  truth,  that  all  nature  is  full  of 
life :  "  Every  part  of  matter  is  peopled,  every  green  leaf  swarms  with 
inhabitants.  There  is  scarce  a  single  humor  in  the  body  of  a  man,  or  of 
any  other  animal,  in  which  our  glasses  do  not  discover  myriads  of  living 
creatures.  The  surface  of  animals  is  also  covered  with  other  animals, 
•which  are  in  the  same  manner  the  basis  of  other  animals,  that  live  upon 
it.  Nay,  we  find  in  the  most  solid  bodies,  as  in  marble  itself,  innumerable 
cells  and  cavities,  that  are  crowded  with  such  imperceptible  inhabitants 
as  are  too  little  for  the  naked  eye  to  discover.  On  the  other  hand,  if  we 
look  into  the  more  bulky  parts  of  nature,  we  see  the  seas,  lakes,  rivers, 
teeming  with  numberless  kinds  of  living  creatures.  We  find  every  mount- 
ain and  marsh,  wilderness  and  wood,  plentifully  stocked  with  birds  and 
beasts;  and  every  part  of  matter  affording  proper  necessaries  and  "con- 
veniences for  the  livelihood  of  multitudes  which  inhabit  it." 

Examples, — In  some  cases,  one  or  two  apposite  examples  or 
striking  circumstances  are  more  effective  than  a  full  enumera- 
tion of  particulars. 


62  MATTER  OF  A  DISCOURSE.  Sec.  35 

Causes  and  Effects. — In  many  subjects  a  very  important 
means  of  amplification  is  that  of  giving  the  causes,  or  condi- 
tions on  which  the  fact  depends,  and  its  effects. 

Ex. — Thus  Jeremy  Taylor,  in  showing  the  evil  nature  of  anger,  dwells 
largely  upon  its  sources  and  consequences.  "  It  makes  a  man's  body 
monstrous,  deformed,  contemptible ;  the  voice  horrid ;  the  eyes  cruel ; 
the  face  pale  or  fiery ;  the  gait  fierce ;  the  speech  clamorous  and  loud. 
It  is  neither  manly  nor  ingenuous.  It  proceeds  from  softness  of  spirit 
and  pusillanimity.  ...  It  is  troublesome,  not  only  to  those  that 
suffer  it,  but  to  them  that  behold  it.  ...  It  turns  friendship  into 
hatred,  it  makes  a  man  lose  himself,  and  his  reason,  and  his  argument  in 
disputation.  It  turns  the  desire  of  knowledge  into  an  itch  of  wrangling,'7 
etc. 

Comparison. — The  object  may  be  compared  with  others  as 
to  its  qualities,  causes,  effects,  etc.  The  comparison  may  ex- 
hibit either  the  resemblances  between  the  objects  or  the  points 
of  difference.  This  is  one  of  the  most  important  means  both 
of  rendering  an  object  more  distinct  and  of  affecting  the  feel- 
ings and  passions. 

Ex. — Similes,  parables,  and  fables  are  forms  of  this  mode  of  amplifica- 
tion. These  will  be  considered  in  Par^  II.  As  an  example  of  formal 
comparison  is  given  the  following  extract  from  Johnson's  comparison  of 
Dryden  and  Pope,  in  which  differences  rather  than  resemblances  are 
dwelt  upon  :  "  Poetry  was  not  the  sole  praise  of  either,  for  both  excelled 
likewise  in  prose ;  but  Pope  did  not  borrow  from  his  predecessor.  The 
style  of  Dryden  is  capricious  and  varied ;  that  of  Pope  is  cautious  and 
uniform.  Dryden  observes  the  motions  of  his  own  mind ;  Pope  con- 
strains his  mind  to  his  own  rules  of  composition.  Dryden  is  sometimes 
vehement  and  rapid ;  Pope  is  always  smooth,  uniform,  and  gentle.  Dry 
den's  page  is  a  natural  field  rising  into  inequalities,  and  diversified  bv  tne 
varied  exuberance  of  abundant  vegetation ;  Pope's  is  a  level  lawn,  ..naved 
by  the  scythe  and  leveled  by  the  roller." 

These  methods  may  be  combined, — The  nature  of  the 
thought  and  the  end  in  view  will  determine  what  means  of 
amplification  are  most  suitable.  It  is  seldom  that  a  writer  is 
restricted  to  any  one  of  them.  In  most  cases  the  different 
modes  are  combined.  An  example  of  this  mixed  form  of 
amplification  is  St.  Paul's  delineation  of  Christian  charity 


Sec,  36  AMPLIFICATION.  63 

(I.  Cor.,  xiii).     This  amplification  consists  chiefly  of  compari- 
son, enumeration,  and  statement  of  the  effects. 

Accessory  ideas. — Another  means  of  amplification  is  that 
of  weaving  into  the  development  of  the  main  idea  related 
thoughts  drawn  from  without  and  not  contained  in  the  subject. 
In  meditating  upon  any  subject  we  frequently  establish  a  rela- 
tion between  it  and  other  objects,  which,  though  entirely  differ- 
ent, have  nevertheless  some  points  of  contact  with  it.  We 
thus  gather  from  our  reading  and  experience,  facts,  testimo- 
nies, striking  sayings,  or  general  principles  of  other  sciences 
which  we  incorporate  into  the  discourse.  They  may  be  given 
with  various  degrees  of  fullness.  Sometimes  only  a  light  pass- 
ing reference  is  made ;  it  is  then  called  an  allusion :  this  is 
often  put  in  a  parenthesis.  On  other  occasions  the  accessory 
idea  may  be  dwelt  upon  5  then  it  becomes  a  digression  or  epi- 
sode. To  this  mode  of  amplification  belong  the  observations 
and  reflections  which  are  used  so  frequently  in  narration  and 
description. 

These  accessory  ideas,  when  properly  chosen  and  cautiously 
used,  are  of  great  service.  They  place  the  subject  in  different 
lights  and  bring  out  different  sides  of  it.  And  while  the 
writer  keeps  steadily  in  view  the  main  idea,  he  is  enabled  to 
point  out  the  relations  of  the  subject  to  other  objects  and  so 
present  it  more  vividly,  give  an  increased  sense  of  its  impor- 
tance, and  stimulate  the  reader's  powers. 

36.  Rules  of  Amplification. — The  general  principle  that 
underlies  the  rules  of  amplification  is  the  fundamental  one  of 
literary  composition;  viz.,  that  every  discourse  is  an  organic 
whole ;  that  it  is  the  necessary  result  of  the  parts,  and  that  the 
parts  have  no  significance  except  in  their  relation  to  the  whole. 
The  entire  discourse  must  be  composed  of  inwardly  related  and 
reciprocally  dependent  thoughts ;  nothing  is  admissible  that 
does  not  contribute  to  the  completeness  and  harmony  of  the 
whole.  The  rules  of  amplification  are  but  special  applications 
of  this  general  principle. 


64  MATTER  OF  A  DISCOURSE.  Sec.  36 

1.  The  matter  employed  in  amplification  is  never,  nor  in 
any  degree,  to  be  treated  as  independent;  but  always  as  subor- 
dinate to  the  end  for  which  it  js  introduced;  viz.,  to  impart 
clearness,  distinctness,  and  vividness  to  the  main  thought. 

Judgment  is  to  be  exercised  in  deciding  what  thoughts 
require  amplification  and  what  do  not.  A  greater  degree  of 
expansion  is  necessary  in  oral  than  in  written  discourse;  and 
in  popular  works  than  in  purely  scientific.  A  brief  exposition 
may  be  sufficient  for  those  who  have  some  acquaintance  with 
the  subject,  while  in  addressing  those  of  less  intelligence  a 
greater  fullness  of  details  is  necessary.  It  is  always  a  most 
serious  fault  to  dwell  on  what  is  unimportant,  trivial,  or  what 
can  be  supplied  by  the  reader ;  it  indicates  a  want  of  the  power 
of  just  discrimination  on  the  part  of  the  writer. 

A  careful  selection  is  to  be  made  from  the  various  thoughts 
suggested ;  only  such  are  to  be  used  as  can  be  woven  into  the 
discourse  and  aid  in  the  attainment  of  the  end  in  view.  This 
applies  to  all  the  modes  of  amplification:  but  caution  is  spe- 
cially necessary  in  introducing  accessory  ideas.  Parentheses, 
digressions,  and  episodes  are  to  be  sparingly  used,  and  ought 
to  be  incorporated  into  the  development  of  the  thought. 
Writers  are  often  led  astray  by  introducing  quotations;  the 
thought  may  be  important  and  striking,  but  not  appropriate, 
and  so  is  superfluous  and  diverts  the  mind  from  the  main 
point.  There  is  also  great  danger  in  embodying  in  the  dis- 
course detached  passages  that  have  been  written  without  refer- 
ence to  the  treatment  of  the  subject  as  a  whole.  They  do  not 
harmonize  with  the  rest  of  the  discourse,  and  have  the  appear- 
ance of  independent  discussions. 

When  this  rule  is  disregarded  the  materials  of  the  composi- 
tion will  be  rather  placed  in  juxtaposition  than,  to  use  Whate- 
ley's  metaphor,  be  felted  together.  Whatever  be  the  beauty 
of  the  details  themselves,  as  they  do  not  combine  to  produce 
one  distinct,  total  impression,  the  work  must  be  considered  as 
badly  constructed. 

2.  The  details  should  be  in  harmony  with  the  general  tone 
of  tlie  discourse.     The  peculiar  relation  of  the  writer  to  the 


Sec.  36  AMPLIFICATION.  05 

subject  and  to  the  circumstances  necessarily  gives  a  distinctive 
character  to  his  mode  of  treatment,  which  should  be  recog- 
nized not  only  in  the  selection  of  the  main  ideas,  but  also  in 
all  the  details.  The  same  principle  of  selection  should  be  em- 
ployed in  choosing  the  principal  and  subordinate  ideas.  To 
change  the  principle  of  selection  is  as  great  a  rhetorical  fault, 
as  in  logic  to  change  the  principle  of  division.  Examples  of 
the  grosser  forms  of  the  violation  of  this  rule  are  flippant, 
ludicrous  remarks  in  a  serious  discourse  5  abstract,  speculative 
discussions  in  an  oration,  etc. 

3.  Every  particular  should  be  in  its  right  place.  There  is 
properly  but  one  place  in  the  discourse  for  which  a  given  par- 
ticular is  fitted,  and  in  which  it  can  best  produce  its  effects. 
It  is  implied  in  this  that  it  should  receive  no  greater  expansion 
than  its  relative  importance  demands.  By  this  means  we  give 
to  a  discourse  its  distribution  of  light  and  shade,  bringing  into 
relief  what  is  important,  while  the  parts  which  serve  to  support 
and  explain  are  placed  in  a  less  conspicuous  station. 

AVhen  the  process  of  amplification  is  finished,  the  theme  has 
received  its  full  and  harmonious  development.  The  next  step 
is  to  embody  the  thoughts  in  language  that  will  convey  them 
to  others. 


PART   II. 


STYLE. 
CHAPTER   I. 

THE   QUALITIES   OF  PROSE   STYLE. 

37.  The  principles,  according  to  which  the  materials  already 
selected  and  arranged  are  expressed  in  language  suited  to  their 
nature  and  the  end  to  be  achieved,  are  contained  in  the  doctrine 
of  Style,  which  forms  the  second  part  of  Rhetoric. 

Nature  and  conditions  of  Style. — Style  is  the  peculiar 
manner  of  expressing  thought  that  pervades  an  entire  produc- 
tion. It  depends  partly  on  the  nature  and  importance  of  the 
subject,  but  chiefly  on  the  character  and  disposition  of  the 
writer.  It  has  been  called  the  physiognomy  of  the  mind,  as  it 
reveals  how  one  thinks  as  well  as  ichat  one  thinks.  When 
the  thoughts  are  trite,  obscure,  or  badly  arranged,  clear  and 
effective  expression  is  impossible. 

While  vigorous  thought  is  an  indispensable  condition  of  a 
good  style,  it  is  not  the  only  one.  All  great  writers  have  been 
great  thinkers,  but  the  history  of  literature  affords  many  in- 
stances to  prove  that  not  all  great  thinkers  are  great  writers. 
We  must  embody  what  we  wish  to  communicate  in  the  forms 
offered  to  us  by  a  particular  language,  and  the  though  is  will 
not  avail  without  skill  to  use  the  instrument  by  which  they  are 
conveyed  to  others.  He  who  wishes  to  excel  in  the  art  of 
expression  must  not  only  acquire  habits  of  correct  and  compre- 
hensive thought,  but  also  master  the  resources  of  his  native 

(66) 


Sec.  37  QUALITIES  OF  PROSE  STYLE.  67 

tongue.  He  can  not  content  himself  with  the  few  hundred 
trite,  loosely  applied  words  and  phrases  that  suffice  for  the  pur- 
poses of  ordinary  business,  but  must  endeavor  to  gain  an  ample 
vocabulary  of  expressive,  accurately  discriminated  terms,  and 
readiness  in  combining  them  according  to  the  laws  of  the  lan- 
guage. 

To  give  to  our  thoughts  their  adequate  expression  is  not  an 
easy  task;  it  demands  care  and  perseverance.  The  greatest 
masters  of  style  have  composed  slowly  and  laboriously.  In 
the  first  place,  it  involves  many  subtle  processes  of  thinking. 
When  we  seek  fitting  words  and  weave  them  into  sentences 
and  paragraphs,  we  are  applying  to  the  primary  elements  of 
the  discourse  the  same  processes  of  analysis  and  comparison 
that  we  had  before  employed  in  dealing  with  large  masses  of 
thoughts.  The  most  delicate  and  exact  discrimination  is  nec- 
essary to  impart  to  them  the  requisite  clearness  and  distinct- 
ness. Secondly,  the  imperfection  of  language  makes  the  ex- 
pression of  thought  difficult.  It  suggests,  does  not  convey, 
thought.  The  most  perfect  language  contains  but  a  compara- 
tively few  symbols  for  the  infinite  variety  of  conceptions  to  be 
expressed.  And  of  these  no  man  has  ever  mastered  all.  Ac- 
cording to  the  estimate  of  Marsh,  there  occur  in  all  the  works 
of  Shakespeare  not  more  than  .fifteen  thousand  words ;  in  the 
poems  of  Milton,  not  above  eight  thousand;  few  writers  or 
speakers  use  as  many  as  ten  thousand  words ;  ordinary  persons 
of  average  intelligence  use  not  more  than  three  or  four  thou- 
sand. It  is  by  means  of  these  few  symbols  that  a  writer  con- 
veys new,  complex,  and  subtle  thoughts  with  all  their  parts  in 
their  exact  relation  to  each  other. 

Its  importance. — It  ought  not  to  be  necessary  to  insist  upon 
the  importance  of  attention  to  style.  All  know  that  the  favor- 
able reception  of  a  truth  is  owing,  not  wholly  to  its  importance, 
but  in  a  great  measure  to  the  manner  in  which  it  is  presented. 
The  same  facts  and  arguments  which,  when  stated  by  one,  gain 
the  understanding  and  affections,  will,  as  exhibited  by  another, 
produce  weariness  and  disgust.  The  duty  is  enforced  by  the 


G8  STYLE.  Sec.  37 

precepts  and  example  of  eminent  writers.  No  work  takes  a 
permanent  place  in  literature  that  is  not  distinguished  for  the 
perfection  of  its  style  as  well  as  the  solidity  of  its  thought. 

Disregard  of  Style  among  English  prose  writers. — An 
inadequate  appreciation  of  style,  or  an  impatience  of  the  re- 
straints of  grammar  and  criticism,  seems  to  be  a  characteristic 
of  the  English  race.  It  has  its  origin  partly  in  the  practical 
disposition  which  prefers  the  matter  to  the  form,  but  in  a  larger 
measure  in  that  erroneous  view  of  style  (founded  upon  a  false 
theory  of  language)  which  regards  it  as  something  distinct 
from  and  external  to  the  thought:  an  error  perpetuated  by 
many  of  the  metaphors  we  use  5  as,  when  we  call  language  the 
close  fitting  dress  of  thought.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind, 
that  thought  and  language  are  reciprocally  dependent:  one  can 
not  exist  without  the  other.  We  do  not  by  language  cover 
and  adorn  our  ideas,  but  reveal  them;  we  embody  them  in 
their  material  signs,  so  that  they  can  be  recognized  in  their 
real  nature  and  importance,  and  be  appropriated  by  others. 

There  are  also  at  present  special  influences  operating  upon 
literature  that  strengthen  the  habit  of  disregard  of  the  art  of 
composition.  The  competition  among  writers  by  profession, 
the  number  of  whom  increases  with  the  diffusion  of  reading, 
alloAvs  no  time  for  the  patient  labor  so  indispensable  to  stylistic 
excellence.  Those  who  write  to  meet  the  demands  of  a  rest- 
less, fickle  public  must  seize  the  theme  of  the  hour  before  the 
popular  interest  in  it  subsides,  and  are  thus  constrained  to 
hasty  composition,  the  effects  of  which  are  injurious  in  every 
respect.  The  result  is,  that  while  in  the  present  century  there 
are  a  few  great  prose  writers  not  surpassed  by  the  greatest  of 
any  former  period  of  English  literature — such  as  Macaulay, 
Landor,  De  Quincey,  Newman — the  mass  of  our  prose  is  char- 
acterized by  slovenliness,  inaccuracy,  exaggeration,  and  feeble- 
ness. 

38.  Fundamental  qualities  of  Prose  style. — The  funda- 
mental qualities  of  prose  style  are  those  which  subserve  the 


Sec.  39  QUALITIES  OF  PKOSE  STYLE.  GO 

ends  of  prose;  these  ends,  as  has  been  already  shown,  are, 
instruction,  conviction,  and  persuasion.  Rhetoricians  enumer- 
ate many  qualities ;  they  may  be  reduced  to  three — propriety, 
perspicuity,  and  vivacity. 

Propriety. — Propriety  includes  two  requisites. 

1.  The  language  should  be  a  just  and  complete  expression  of 
the  thought;  not  conveying  more  than  the  writer's  meaning, 
nor  less ;  not  suggesting  something  different  from  what  he  in- 
tends, but  giving  the  exact  conception  clearly  discriminated 
from  all  related  notions  and  with  its  essential  marks.     This 
conformity  of  the  expression  to  the  thought  is  a  virtue  difficult 
(especially  where  the  notions  to  be  conveyed  are  abstract  and 
elementary),  but  not  impossible  to  acquire.     Wherever  met 
with,  it  affords  pure  and  intense  intellectual  pleasure,  as  the 
want  of  it  always  occasions  perplexity  and  dissatisfaction. 

2.  The  style  should  be  appropriate  to  the  nature,  importance, 
and  dignity  of  the  subject.      This  rule  is  very  generally  vio- 
lated.    A  writer  offends  against  truth  and  justness,  on  the  one 
hand,  when  in  treating  of  ordinary  objects  and  occurrences,  he 
adopts  a  technical,  artificial  diction  instead  of  a  familiar,  idio- 
matic one,  or  employs  the  language  of  emotion  and  passion  in 
addressing  the  understanding;    on  the  other  hand,  when  he 
presents  serious  and  elevated  subjects  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
awaken  IOAV  -and  ludicrous  associations.     Both  extremes  are 
the  indications  of  a  lack  of  judgment,  of  taste,  and  of  moral 
sensibility.     Good  sense  and  genuine  culture  reveal  themselves 
in  a  style  that  shuns  pedantry,  affectation,  bombast,  and  vul- 
garity ;  that  uses  plain  words  for  plain  thoughts,  and  rejects 
what  is  extravagant  or  offensive  to  delicacy  of  feeling. 

39.  Perspicuity. — Tt"  should  be  easily  understood  by  those 
to  whom  it  is  addressed.  Perspicuity  is  a  relative  quality. 
Many  subjects,  in  order  to  be  understood,  require  much  pre- 
vious information  and  habits  of  reflection,  and  can  not  by  the 
most  skillful  use  of  language  be  made  intelligible  to  those  who 
are  wanting  in  the  requisite  capacity  and  attainments.  A 


70  STYLE.  Sec.  39 

writer  is  not  expected  to  render  his  meaning  obvious  to  all. 
The  degree  of  perspicuity  of  which  the  subject  is  susceptible 
and  the  character  of  the  readers  should  be  taken  into  considera- 
tion. The  law  of  clearness  demands  that  he  do  not  add  to  the 
intrinsic  difficulty  of  the  subject  by  his  mode  of  presenting  it, 
but  economize  the  attention  of  the  reader  by  concentrating  it 
upon  the  subject  and  allowing  none  to  be  lost  in  overcoming 
difficulties  of  expression.  The  writer  who  compels  his  readers 
to  pause  at  words,  to  reread  sentences,  and  painfully  collect  his 
meaning,  should  not  be  disappointed  when  he  finds  that  his 
thoughts,  although  new  and  important,  produce  no  impression. 
The  power  of  attention  is  limited ;  when  it  is  divided  among  a 
number  of  objects,  no  distinct  and  vivid  image  of  any  one  is 
obtained ;  whatever  is  expended  on  the  language  is  withdrawn 
from  the  thought,  and  weakens  its  force. 

Spencer's  statement  of  the  law  of  economy  of  attention. — 

This  law  of  economizing  attention  is  made  by  Herbert  Spencer 
the  one  general  principle  from  which  all  the  rules  of  composi- 
tion result.  He  says  :  "  On  seeking  for  some  clue  to  the  law 
underlying  these  current  maxims,  we  may  see  shadowed  forth 
in  many  of  them  the  importance  of  economizing  the  reader's  or 
hearer's  attention.  To  so  present  ideas  that  they  may  be  ap- 
prehended with  the  least  possible  mental  effort,  is  the  deside- 
ratum towards  which  most  of  the  rules  above  quoted  point. 
When  we  condemn  writing  that  is  wordy,  or  confused,  or  in- 
tricate ;  when  we  praise  this  style  as  easy,  and  blame  that  as 
fcitiguing,  we  consciously  or  unconsciously  assume  this  deside- 
ratum as  our  standard  of  judgment.  Regarding  language  as 
an  apparatus  of  symbols  for  the  conveyance  of  thought,  we 
may  say,  that,  as  in  a  mechanical  apparatus,  the  more  simple 
and  the  better  arranged  its  parts  the  greater  will  be  the  effect 
produced.  In  either  case,  whatever  force  is  absorbed  by  the 
machine  is  deducted  from  the  result.  A  reader  or  listener  has 
at  each  moment  but  a  limited  amount  of  mental  power  avail- 
able. To  recognize  and  interpret  the  symbols  presented  to 
him,  requires  part  of  this  power;  to  arrange  and  combine  the 


Sec.  40  QUALITIES  OF  PKOSE  STYLE.  71 

images  suggested  requires  a  further  part;  and  only  that  part 
which  remains  can  be  used  for  realizing  the  thought  conveyed. 
Hence,  the  more  time  and  attention  it  takes  to  receive  and 
understand  each  sentence,  the  less  time  and  attention  can  be 
given  to  the  contained  idea;  and  the  less  vividly  Avill  that  idea 
be  conceived.  .  .  .  Hence,  carrying  out  the  metaphor 
that  language  is  the  vehicle  of  thought,  there  seems  reason  to 
think  that  in  all  cases  the  friction  and  inertia  of  the  vehicle 
deduct  from  its  efficiency ;  and  that  in  composition  the  chief,  if 
not  the  sole  thing  to  be  done,  is,  to  reduce  this  friction  and 
inertia  to  the  smallest  possible  amount.  Let  us  then  inquire 
whether  economy  of  the  recipient's  attention  is  not  the  secret  of 
effect,  alike  in  the  right  choice  and  collocation  of  words,  in  the 
best  arrangement  of  clauses  in  a  sentence,  in  the  proper  order 
of  its  principal  and  subordinate  propositions,  in  the  judicious 
use  of  simile,  metaphor,  and  other  figures  of  speech,  and  even 
in  the  rhythmical  sequence  of  syllables."  Essays,  Moral,  Po- 
litical, and  Esthetic,  pp.  11,  12. 

40.  Vivacity. — The  law  of  economizing  attention  is  not  en- 
titled to  the  rank  of  the  supreme  law  of  composition ;  we  must 
add  to  it  another;  viz.,  that  the  thoughts  must  be  so  presented 
as  to  call  into  vigorous  energy  the  mental  powers  of  the  reader. 
Pain  is  the  result  of  a  want  of  a  proper  exertion  of  our  faculties 
as  well  as  of  stimulating  them  beyond  their  natural  limits. 
By  forgetting  this  we  may,  in  the  endeavor  to  be  perspicuous, 
become  feeble,  dull,  heavy.  It  is  necessary  then  to  preserve 
the  medium  between  the  extremes  of  undue  depression  and 
over-exertion  of  the  activities  of  the  reader.  This  quality  is 
called  vivacity ;  it  may  be  described  as  such  a  presentation  of 
thoughts  as  determines  the  reader  to  reproduce  them  instead  of 
merely  passively  receiving  them. 

Beauty. — The  combination  of  these  qualities  constitutes 
beauty  of  style ;  which  is  not  to  be  considered,  as  is  generally 
done,  a  separate  quality.  This  false  notion  has  arisen  from 
regarding  style  as  something  independent  of  the  thought,  and 


72  STYLE.  Sec.  40 

lias  led  many  writers  astray.  A  style  is  beautiful  so  far  as  — 
and  only  so  far  as — it  is  the  adequate  expression  of  worthy 
thoughts.  There  is  no  means  of  securing  it,  except  by  aiming 
at  the  highest  possible  degree  of  propriety,  perspicuity,  and 
vivacity. 

41.  The  English  language  as  to  its  power  of  expres- 
sion.— Languages  differ  in  their  power  of  expression.  Each 
of  the  great  languages  of  civilization  has  its  peculiar  advan- 
tages and  difficulties.  The  English  may  be  surpassed  by  some 
others  in  separate  traits,  but  in  the  combination  of  the  requi- 
sites of  adequate  expression  it  yields  to  none. 

It  is  a  composite  tongue ;  it  has  not  grown  up  from  a  few 
germs  by  the  processes  of  derivation  and  composition,  but  is 
the  result  of  the  conflicts  and  mingling  of  different  languages. 
While  its  groundwork  is  Anglo-Saxon,  the  building  is  com- 
posed of  materials  from  many  quarters.  Its  two  chief  elements 
are  Anglo-Saxon  and  Latin,  which  are  so  united  as  to  give 
almost  a  double  language. 

The  English  language  has  suffered  in  the  revolutions  through 
which  it  has  passed.  It  has  lost  most  of  its  original  inflections, 
and  with  them  the  liberty  of  position  of  words  in  the  sentence ; 
it  has  lost  also  to  a  great  extent  the  power  of  composition  and 
derivation.  The  greatest  loss  is  that  of  the  primitive  meaning 
and  suggestiveness  of  its  words.  The  language  is  crowded 
with  barren,  arbitrary  symbols,  which  do  not  suggest  the  ideas 
with  vivacity,  and  are  especially  liable  to  be  misunderstood  and 
misapplied. 

But  its  gains  far  exceed  its  losses.  It  possesses  a  copious 
vocabulary  for  all  kinds  of  subjects  and  compositions.  Its  liter- 
ary diction  was  founded  by  Chaucer;  its  religious  diction,  at 
the  same  period,  by  Wycliffe;  its  philosophical  dialect  was 
perfected  in  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries;  and  all 
have  been  enriched  and  invigorated  by  the  great  national  con- 
troversies in  religion  and  politics.  It  has  also  the  means  of 
supplying  its  deficiencies  by  appropriating  from  foreign  sources, 
recalling  words  that  have  fallen  into  disuse,  and  drawing  from 


Sec.  42  QUALITIES  OF  PEOSE  STYLE.  73 

provincial  dialects.  It  affords  the  means  of  varying  the  style ; 
the  writer  may  choose  Latin  words  or  Anglo-Saxon,  or  may 
combine  them  in  different  proportions;  and  according  as  lie 
selects  the  words  may  vary  the  structure  of  sentences,  making 
them  more  periodic  when  the  Latin  element,  more  elliptical 
when  the  Saxon  element  predominates.  It  is  surpassed  by  no 
language  in  its  power  of  clear  and  precise  expression;  the 
number  of  duplicate  words  which  it  possesses  enables  it  to 
mark  the  delicate  shades  of  difference  between  ideas.  At  the 
same  time,  it  can  convey  them  with  brevity  and  force.  Not- 
withstanding the  frequent  accusation  made  against  it  of  ex- 
treme harshness,  in  the  hands  of  great  masters  it  is  susceptible 
of  a  high  degree  of  harmony  and  melody. 

REMARK. — Grimm  speaks  thus  of  it :  "  None  of  the  modern  languages 
has  through  the  very  loss  and  decay  of  all  phonetic  laws,  and  through  the 
dropping  of  nearly  all  inflections,  acquired  greater  force  and  vigor  than 
the  English;  and  from  the  fullness  of  those  vague  and  indefinite  sounds 
which  may  be  learned  but  can  never  be  taught,  it  has  derived  a  power  of 
expression  such  as  has  never  been  at  the  command  of  any  human  tongue. 
Begotten  by  a  surprising  union  of  the  two  noblest  languages  of  Europe, — 
the  one  Teutonic,  the  other  Romanic, — it  received  that  wonderfully  happy 
temper  and  thorough  breeding,  where  the  Teutonic  supplied  the  material 
strength,  the  Romanic  the  suppleness  and  freedom  of  expression.  Nay, 
the  English  language  which  has  borne,  not  as  it  were  by  mere  chance,  the 
greatest  poet  of  modern  times, — great  in  his  very  contrast  with  classical 
poetry — I  speak, ,of  course,  of  Shakespeare, — this  English  language  may 
truly  be  called  a  world  language,  and  seems,  like  England  herself,  but  in 
a  still  higher  degree,  destined  to  rule  over  all  the  corners  of  the  earth.  In 
wealth,  wisdom,  and  strict  economy,  none  of  the  living  languages  can  vie 
with  it." 

Marsh  says:  "In  fact,  it  has  so  completely  adapted  itself  to  the  uses 
and  wants  of  Christian  society,  as  exemplified  by  the  Anglo-Saxon  race  in 
the  highest  forms  to  which  associate  life  has  anywhere  attained,  that  it 
well  deserves  to  be  considered  the  model  speech  of  modern  humanity, 
nearly  achieving  in  language  the  realization  of  that  great  ideal  which  wiseA 
men  are  every-where  seeking  to  make  the  fundamental  law  of  political 
organization,  the  union  of  freedom,  stability,  and  progress." 

42.   Topics  to  be  discussed  in  the  doctrine  of  Style. 

The  hnvs  for  expressing  thought  ^ith 

Rhet.  7 


74  STYLE.  Sec.  42 

and  vivacity  relate  to  the  choice  of  words  and  their  combina- 
tion. 

Words  are  either  proper,  literal  expressions  of  ideas,  or 
denote  them  analogically  and  figuratively.  They  are  combined 
first  into  sentences,  which  may  then  be  combined  into  a  more 
complex  unity,  called  the  paragraph.  The  mode  in  which 
words  are  selected  and  combined  gives  rise  to  diversities  of 
style,  some  of  which  it  is  expedient  to  describe. 

The  topics  to  be  considered  are  as  follows : 

1.  The  Choice  of  Words. 

2.  Figures  of  Speech. 

3.  The  Sentence. 

4.  The  Paragraph. 

5.  Division  of  Style. 


CHAPTER  II. 

THE   CHOICE   OF  WORDS. 

43.  Importance  and  difficulty  of  a  proper  choice  of 
words. — The  selection  of  words  demands  special  care. in  Eng- 
lish composition.  Owing  to  the  comparatively  little  liberty 
allowed  in  arranging  words  in  a  sentence,  a  writer  must  de- 
pend mainly  upon  a  judicious  selection  of  them  to  give  to  his 
ideas  their  due  importance  and  emphasis. 

The  choice  of  words  is  often  a  matter  of  great  difficulty. 
The  English  vocabulary  is  one  of  the  most  extensive  possessed 
by  any  language ;  it  is  widely  diffused,  and  employed  by  per- 
sons in  the  greatest  variety  of  occupations;  so  that  it  is  not 
Always  an  easy  matter  to  determine  what  words  belong  to  the 
common  stock  from  which  alone  a  literary  writer  is  permitted 
to  draw.  A  great  number  of  words  in  common  use  are  im- 
ported from  abroad.  Two  serious  evils  result  from  this,  which 
add  to  the  difficulties  of  an  English  writer.  The  first  is,  that 
the  general  principles  and  analogies  governing  the  formation 


Sec.  44  THE  CHOICE  OF  WORDS.  75 

of  words  are  obscured ;  the  second  is,  that,  as  these  foreign 
words  are  not,  like  those  of  native  growth,  derived  by  fixed 
laws  from  well  known  roots,  their  primary  meaning  is  not 
known  to  the  most  of  those  who  use  them;  they  convey  no 
distinct  ideas,  arid  are  liable  to  be  misunderstood  and  per- 
verted. 

We  shall  consider  words  with  respect  to — National  use, 
Present  use.  Moral  dignity,  Propriety. 

44.  National  use. — In  the  English  language  there  are 
words  and  phrases  which  are  understood  and  used  by  all  edu- 
cated persons,  and  universally  recognized  as  composing  the 
national  speech — the  common  possession  of  all  without  respect 
to  class,  occupation,  or  abode.  The  words  admitted  into  a 
composition  should  be  drawn  from  this  common  stock;  none 
should  be  used  that  belong  to  a  foreign  tongue  or  are  current 
only  in  narrow  circles. 

This  rule  is  violated  by  the  use  of  barbarisms  and  provin- 
cialisms. 

Barbarisms. — Foreign  words  and  phrases  should  not  be 
employed  except  when  the  national  language  has  no  terms  in 
common  use  that  adequately  express  the  thought. 

This  rule  does  not  prohibit  absolutely  the  use  of  foreign 
terms.  Purity  must  not  degenerate  into  purism.  It  is  no  de- 
fect in  a  language  to  contain  foreign  ingredients,  and  no  excel- 
lence to  be  without  them.  Our  language,  as  it  has  been  trans- 
mitted to  us,  contains  a  vast  number  of  elements  which  can  not 
be  separated  from  it:  and  extended  intercourse  with  other 
nations  by  commerce,  immigration,  study  of  their  literatures, 
etc.,  is  continually  bringing  new  accessions.  In  addition  to 
this,  our  language  having  lost  to  a  great  degree  the  power  of 
forming  new  words  from  its  own  materials,  is  obliged  to  resort 
to  foreign  languages  for  aid. 

The  foreign  words  in  the  language  can  be  divided  into  three 
classes. 

1.  Such  as  are  naturalized.     They  express  notions  current 


76  STYLE.  Sec,  44 

among  the  people  for  which  the  vernacular  has  no  other  equally 
suitable  designation ;  by  long  use  they  have  lost  their  foreign 
appearance,  and  have  accommodated  themselves  to  the  native 
idiom. . 

The  naturalization  of  a  word  is  effected  in  different  ways : 

(1)  By  change  of  accent  5  as,  pretext',  pre'text;  essay7,  es'- 
say,  etc. 

(2)  By  change  of  spelling ;  as,  chirurgeon,  surgeon ;  vehicu- 
lum,  vehicle;    earriere,  career;    innocentia,  innocence;   per- 
ruque,  periwig,  wig. 

(3)  By  change  of  inflection ;   for  instance,  instead  of  dog- 
mata, we  say  dogmas ;  instead  of  epocha,  epochs ;  and  instead 
of  gymnasia,  some  of  our  best  writers  are  using  the  form  gym- 
nasiums. 

(4)  By  change  of  signification.     Foreign  words  retain  at 
first  the  sense  they  bore  in  the  language  from  which  they  were 
taken;    but  by  use  the  original  meaning  is  lost  or  greatly 
changed,  and  a  derivative  or  secondary  signification  becomes 
the  leading  one;   as,  contrition,  tribulation,  considerable,  lu- 
natic. 

Words  that  have  been  naturalized  are  a  portion  of  the  na- 
tional language,  and  should  be  used  in  their  'popular  form  and 
meaning.  It  is  mere  pedantry  and  a  violation  of  the  purity 
of  the  language  to  attempt  to  restore  them  to  their  primitive 
form,  pronunciation,  or  signification. 

2.  Words  that  retain  their  original  form,  and  are  recognized 
as  foreign,  but  for  which  we  have  not  any  exact  equivalents  in 
English.  Many  of  these  are  of  technical  import,  designations 
of  rank,  of  modes  of  life,  and  the  like ;  for  instance,  terminus, 
plural  termini;  phenomenon,  phenomena;  interregnum,  de- 
sideratum. 

While  in  this  form  they  may  be  looked  upon  as  candidates 
for  admission  into  the  language.  In  time,  they  will  either 
become  fully  naturalized  or  be  supplanted  by  native  terms. 
Their  use  is  unavoidable,  although  it  is  allowed  to  propose 
substitutes  for  them.  When  employed  they  should  appear  in 
their  original  form. 


Sec.  44  THE  CHOICE  OF  WORDS.  77 

There  are  also  many  foreign  phrases  that  have  passed  from 
the  arts,  sciences,  and  learned  professions  into  popular  use; — 
for  instance,  bonn  fide,  rcrbatim  et  literal  im,  lajmw  Ihiyuce, 
pro  tcitiporCj  rice  rcrsdj  etc.  Most  of  these  can  he  dispensed 
with ;  their  frequent  use  is  a  violation  of  purity  and  propriety. 

3.  Foreign  words  and  phrases  that  can  be  replaced  by 
equally  expressive  and  euphonious  English  words  in  actual 
use. 

These  are  barbarisms,  and  should  be  unconditionally  re- 
jected. They  are  superfluous,  as  they  express  no  thought  nor 
shade  of  thought  which  is  not  expressed  altogether  as  well  by 
current  words ;  and  since  superfluous  words  are  not  tolerated 
in  a  language,  they  can  be  retained  only  by  dropping  the  more 
intelligible  and  suggestive  native  words.  The  result  of  this 
process,  if  long  continued,  is  to  render  our  classic  authors  anti- 
quated. They  are  prohibited  because  they  are  unintelligible  to 
the  mass  of  readers.  Their  introduction  leads  also  to  the  cor- 
ruption of  the  syntax ;  as  words  generally  bring  the  foreign 
construction  with  them.  They  are  to  be  rejected  on  aesthetic 
grounds ;  the  confusion  of  words  of  different  languages  in  the 
same  work  is  incompatible  with  simplicity  and  harmony,  which 
are  essential  qualities  of  a  literary  production. 

REMARK. — The  tendency  to  introduce  aliens  to  the  exclusion  of  the 
natives  is  the  result  sometimes  of  ignorance,  sometimes  of  pedantry,  and 
sometimes  of  fashion  and  caprice.  Most  of  the  words  thus  introduced 
are  drawn  from  the  Latin  and  French  languages.  The  works  of  many 
authors  of  former  periods  are  crowded  with  Latin  and  Greek  words. 
The  fashion  at  present  is  to  employ  French. 

The  following  extracts  from  a  discourse  of  Culverwell  (1652)  will  illus- 
trate the  style  of  many  theological  writers  of  that  period :  "  For  as  in  the 
most  glorious  creature  as  a  creature  there  is  alt  quid  nib  Hi;  so  in  the  most 
contemptible  creature  as  a  creature  there  is  aliquid  Dei.  I  (ay)  but  the 
atheist  he  shuts  his  eyes,  and  quid  cceco  cum  specula?  what  should  a  blind 
man  do  with  a  looking-glass?"  and  so  on  throughout  the  entire  discourse. 

This  appears  barbarous;  but  it  is  not  more  so  than  the  profuse  em- 
ployment of  French  words  which  is  admired  by  many  as  fine  writing. 
This  species  of  barbarism  is  exposed  by  a  writer  quoted  by  Dean  Alford : 
"  A  class  of  writers  has  sprung  up  who  appear  to  think  it  their  special 
business  to  enrich  the  language  by  dragging  into  it,  without  any  attempt 


78  STYLE.  Sec.  44 

at  assimilation,  contributions  from  all  the  tongues  of  tlie  earth.  The 
result  is  a  wretched  piece  of  patchwork,  which  may  have  charms  in  the 
eyes  of  some  people,  but  which  is  certainly  an  abomination  in  the  eyes  of 
the  genuine  student  of  language.  We  need  only  glance  into  one  of  the 
periodical  representatives  of  fashionable  literature,  or  into  a  novel  of  the 
day,  to  see  how  serious  this  assault  upon  the  purity  of  the  English  lan- 
guage has  become.  .  .  .  The  heroes  are  always  marked  by  an  air 
distingue;  the  vile  men  are  sure  to  be  biases.  .  .  .  Then  there  is  a 
bold  man  to  describe.  Having  acquired  the  savoir  faire,  he  is  never 
afraid  of  making  a  faux  pas,  but  no  matter  what  kind  of  conversation  is 
started  plunges  at  once  in  medias  res."  And  so  on.  The  Queen's  Eng- 
lish, pp.  266-268. 

A  more  dangerous  form  of  barbarism  is  the  adoption  of 
foreign  idioms ;  as,  "  The  king  assisted  [was  present]  at  the 
ceremony."  "Louis  the  Fourteenth  had  reason  [was  right] 
when  he  said,  4  The  Pyrenees  are  removed.' " 

The  use  of  such  idioms  perverts  the  meaning  of  the  English 
words  and  changes  the  fabric  of  the  language.  We  are  threat- 
ened by  this  corruption  from  two  quarters.  First,  the  number 
of  translations  is  continually  increasing,  most  of  which  retain 
some  of  the  constructions  of  the  original.  Secondly,  the  many 
foreigners  who  make  use  of  the  English  language  introduce 
their  own  idioms;  although  they  employ  English  words  they 
still  retain  the  construction  of  their  native  tongue.  From  this 
source,  many  German  idioms  have  gained  admission  into  the 
popular  dialect  of  portions  of  this  country. 

Provincialisms. — Provincialisms  are  words  and  phrases  the 
use  of  which  is  confined  to  a  particular  district.  They  are  not 
a  part  of  the  national  language ;  although  readily  understood 
in  the  region  in  which  they  are  current,  they  are  not  intelli- 
gible beyond  its  limits. 

The  wide  extension  of  the  English  language  will  occasion 
many  important  local  variations  from  the  standard  speech ; 
already  in  the  United  States,  in  India,  and  in  Australia  such 
differences  appear.  Those  which  are  regarded  as  peculiar  to 
the  United  States  are  called  Americanisms. 

The  difference  between  American  and  British  English  has 


Sec.  45  THE  CHOICE  OF  WORDS.  79 

been  greatly  overestimated.  The  words  that  are  considered 
Americanisms  may  be  classified  as  follows :  (1)  Such  as  were 
brought  to  this  country  from  Great  Britain  by  the  colonists 
and  have  been  retained  by  their  descendants.  Bartlett  esti- 
mates that  nine-tenths  of  the  colloquialisms  of  Xew  England 
belong  to  this  class.  These  words  are  either  such  as  were 
provincial  at  the  time  of  the  emigration  and  still  are  current  in 
the  same  counties ;  or  such  as  were  of  reputable  use,  but  have 
since  become  obsolete  in  England. 

(2)  Words  that  owe  their  origin  to  the  new  objects,  modes 
of  life,  and  institutions  of  this  country.     These  are  either  au- 
thorized words  employed  in  a  different  sense  from  that  in  which 
they  are  used  in  their  native  country ;  or  new  words,  some  of 
which  are  necessary,  others  useless. 

(3)  Words  that  owe  their  origin  to  foreign  influences.     The 
numerous  colonies — Dutch,  German,  French,  Spanish — as  also 
the  negroes  and  Indians,  have  all  introduced  corruptions  into 
the  language,  which  at  first  were  confined  to  particular  locali- 
ties, but  afterwards  became  more  general. 

REMARK. — The  importance  of  local  and  provincial  dialects  as  illustrat- 
ing our  early  language  and  literature  is  becoming  more  generally  recog- 
nized, and  a  juster  estimate  of  their  nature  is  entertained.  Our  poetic 
diction  has  been  enriched  by  many  additions  from  this  source.  Prose  is 
allowed  less  liberty  in  this  respect;  but  no  one  nowadays  would  maintain 
that  the  adoption  of  a  provincialism  into  the  literary  dialect  is  absolutely 
prohibited. 

45.  Present  use. — The  language  of  living  men  undergoes  a 
constant  change.  Words  become  old  and  disappear,  and  new 
ones  are  introduced.  The  laws  of  style  require  that  the  words 
employed  in  composition  shall  be  such  as  are  in  use.  This 
rule  prohibits  obsolete  words  and  neologisms. 

Obsolete  words. — Obsolete  words  are  such  as  were  once 
current,  but  have  disappeared  from  use.  There  is  no  standard 
by  which  to  decide  whether  a  word  has  become  obsolete.  In 
reference  to  many  there  can  be  no  doubt  5  they  are  at  once  pro- 


80  STYLE.  Sec,  45 

nounced  to  be  no  longer  a  part  of  the  current  language.  But 
as  to  others  there  is  no  agreement. 

Campbell  would  consider  as  obsolete  those  words  and  idioms 
which  have  been  disused  by  all  good  authors  for  a  period  longer 
than  the  age  of  man  extends  to.  It  is  not  possible  to  apply 
tliis  test ;  no  one  is  able  to  survey  the  whole  field  of  contempo- 
rary literature.  Again,  it  is  not  safe ;  the  mere  passing  from 
actual  use  does  not  justify  us  in  considering  a  word  as  perma- 
nently obsolete.  Words  that  have  been  condemned  by  the 
critic  as  obsolete  or  obsolescent  often  revive  and  take  their 
place  in  the  current  language.  Few  of  the  present  day  will 
accept  the  decision,  that  words  which  have  not  been  used 
within  the  knowledge  or  remembrance  of  those  now  living  are 
no  longer  a  part  of  our  intellectual  coin,  and  can  not  be  em- 
ployed without  violating  the  laws  of  good  taste. 

The  only  test  is  the  subjective  one.  If  the  word  would  not 
naturally  find  a  place  in  prose  writings  of  the  present  day,  or 
if  it  appears  strange  when  met  with  in  earlier  authors,  it  may 
be  regarded  as  obsolete.  This  test  can  be  applied  only  by 
those  who  have  been  long  familiar  with  the  best  writers.  ~No 
two  would  entirely  agree  in  their  decisions  as  to  what  are  and 
what  are  not  obsolete. 

No  absolute  rule  can  be  laid  down  respecting  the  recalling  of 
words  that  have  fallen  into  disuse.  Many  deserved  to  be  dis- 
carded ;  they  were  defective  in  form  and  logical  clearness,  and 
have  been  replaced  by  better  words,  or  were  banished  as  coarse, 
or  rejected  as  marking  useless  distinctions ;  others  were  worn 
out  by  use;  changes  in  the  arts  and  employments  caused  the 
disappearance  of  whole  classes.  The  language  has  not  suffered 
by  losing  them.  On  the  other  hand,  many  valuable  words 
have  been  lost,  not  by  the  progress  of  the  nation  in  knowledge 
and  refinement,  but  by  its  decline.  In  times  when  the  na- 
tional spirit  had  decayed,  foreign  words  were  permitted  to  sup- 
pi  ant  native ;  when  the  direction  of  mental  activity  is  changed, 
and  important  fields  of  investigation  are  forsaken,  the  terms 
employed  in  these  sciences  are  left  to  perish ;  looseness  of 
thinking,  by  neglecting  the  important  distinctions  indicated  by 


Sec.  45  THE  CHOICE  OF  WORDS.  81 

words,  renders  many  superfluous,  and  thus  contributes  to  mak- 
ing them  obsolete.  To  restore  such  words  to  their  place  will  be 
a  benefit  to  the  language.  With  the  quickening  of  intellectual 
and  moral  life,  and  the  resuming  of  long  abandoned  studies  and 
pursuits,  many  of  them  will  be  revived.  The  task  of  recalling 
obsolete  and  obsolescent  words  is  committed  mainly  to  poets ; 
the  philosopher  and  historian  are  subjected  to  greater  restric- 
tions. 

Neologisms. — New  words  may  be  formed  by  composition 
and  derivation  from  native  or  foreign  materials.  The  privilege 
is  to  be  used  with  great  caution.  The  tendency  at  present  is 
to  recklessness  in  coining  them ;  a  most  important  part  of  the 
work  of  verbal  criticism  is  to  guard  against  the  corruption  of 
the  language  by  neologisms. 

To  be  entitled  to  a  place  in  the  language  a  word  should 
comply  with  the  following  conditions : 

1.  It  should  denote  a  new  and  important  conception  that  is 
not  adequately  expressed  by  any  native  or  naturalized  word. 
A  term  that  brings  to  distinct  consciousness  a  new  combination 
of  thoughts,  or  an  important  distinction,  is  an  addition  to  the 
intellectual  wealth  of  a  people ;  while  one  that  merely  disguises 
an  old  notion  in  a  new  dress,  or  denotes  a  low,  trivial  conceit, 
or  a  useless  distinction,  is  a  violation  of  good  use ;  as,  author- 
ess, poetess,  conductress,  jeopardize,  happify,  donate. 

2.  It  should  be  formed  according  to  the  analogy  of  the  lan- 
guage.    Anomalous  words, — L  e.,  those  violating  the  general 
analogy  of  the  language,  have  a   foreign,  repulsive   aspect. 
The  force  of  the  prefixes  and  suffixes  must  be  carefully  ob- 
served.    By  themselves  they  are  without  meaning,  but  have 
peculiar  significance  in  composition  and  derivation:  some  are 
active,  others  passive;  some  can  be  used  with  but  one  part  of 
speech,  others  with  several.     The  suffix  -able  occasions  a  great 
deal  of  perplexity,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  discussions  on  the 
word  reliable :  the  suffix  -ize  is  very  improperly  employed  with 
all  parts  of  speech ;  for  example,  burglarize,  experimentalize, 
funeralize,  etc. 


82  STYLE.  Sec.  45 

The  analogy  of  the  language  is  often  violated  by  forming 
hybrids , — i.  e.,  compounds  with  parts  derived  from  different 
languages  ;  one  part  may  be  Anglo-Saxon,  the  other  Latin  or 
Greek;  or  one  may  be  Latin,  the  other  Greek.  Such  com- 
pounds are  not  absolutely  prohibited  in  the  English  language. 
The  distinction  between  its  different  elements  is  riot  so  broad 
that  each  is  left  entirely  to  its  own  laws.  The  Latin  has 
yielded  in  many  cases  to  the  Anglo-Saxon.  Many  hybrids 
have  been  received  as  a  permanent  part  of  the  language  and 
have  become  familiar  to  us,  and  new  ones  analogous  to  the  old 
are  formed. 

There  are  many  words  in  which  a  native  suffix  is  attached  to 
a  Latin  root  ;  as,  motion-less,  pain-fulj  but  the  analogy  of  the 
language  does  not  favor  the  joining  of  a  Latin  suffix  to  an 
English  root.  As  a  general  rule  prefixes  are  of  the  same  lan- 
guage as  the  word  to  which  they  are  added.  There  are,  how- 
ever, many  exceptions,  especially  in  the  use  of  the  negative 
prefix  un-j  which  is  of  native  origin,  but  is  prefixed  to  Latin 
words;  as  unjust,  unidiomatic.  The  tendency,  however,  at 
present  is  to  substitute  the  Latin  in-  for  ^ln-J  in  words  of  foreign 
extraction.  In  the  word  iin-grate-ful,  we  find  a  native  prefix 
and  suffix  with  a  Latin  root. 

The  word  linguistic,  which  seems  to  be  naturalized  in  scien- 
tific nomenclature,  is  a  hybrid  compounded  of  a  Latin  noun 
and  two  Greek  suffixes. 

3.  It  should  be  euphonic.  It  is  not  a  sufficient  reason  for 
rejecting  a  word  otherwise  unexceptionable,  that  it  is  some- 
what rough  or  harsh ;  but  if  it  is  difficult  of  utterance  it  does 
not  serve  the  purposes  of  speech,  and  has  no  good  claim  to  be 
adopted. 

Words  that  are  defective  in  respect  to  euphony  are  reduced 
by  Campbell  to  the  following  classes : 

(1)  When  the  syllables  which  immediately  follow  the  ac- 
cented syllable  are  so  crowded  with  consonants  as  of  necessity 
to  retard  the  pronunciation ;  for  example,  questionless,  remem- 
brancer. 


Sec.  46  THE  CHOICE  OF  WORDS.  83 

(2)  When  too  many  syllables  follow  the  accented  syllable  ; 
for  example,  primarily,  summarily. 

(3)  When  a  short  or  unaccented  syllable  is  repeated  or  fol- 
lowed by  another  short  unaccented  syllable  very  much  resem- 
bling.    This  gives  the  appearance  of  stammering  to  the  pro- 
nunciation ;  for  example,  holily,  sillily. 

4.  It  should  be  intelligible  at  once  to  those  for  whom  it  is 
designed.  A  word  needing  a  commentary  is  superfluous. 
"  The  true  criterion,"  says  Julius  Hare,  u  of  the  worth  of  a 
new  word  is  its  having  such  a  familiar  look,  and  bearing  its 
meaning  and  the  features  of  its  kindred  so  visible  in  its  face 
that  we  hardly  know  whether  it  is  not  an  old  acquaintance. 
Then  more  especially  is  it  likely  to  be  genuine,  when  its  author 
himself  is  scarcely  conscious  of  its  novelty.  At  all  events,  it 
should  not  seem  to  be  the  fruit  of  study,  but  to  spring  sponta- 
neously from  the  inspiration  of  the  moment."  Guesses  at 
Truth. 

Our  great  writers  are  sparing  in  the  use  of  new  words;  they 
accomplish  their  purpose  by  a  felicitous  selection  and  arrange- 
ment of  old  and  familiar  words.  It  is  safer  for  the  writer  to 
be  somewhat  behind  than  in  advance  of  the  language.  In 
respect  to  both  old  and  new  words,  the  rule  given  by  Quin- 
tilian  should  be  followed, — to  prefer  the  oldest  of  the  new  and 
the  newest  of  the  old.  Or  as  it  is  expressed  by  Ben  Jonson: 
u  We  must  not  be  too  frequent  with  the  mint — every  day  coin- 
ing, nor  fetch  words  from  the  extreme  and  utmost  ages. 
Words  borrowed  from  antiquity  do  lend  a  kind  of  majesty  to 
style,  and  are  not  without  their  delight  sometimes;  for  they 
have  the  authority  of  years,  and  out  of  their  intermission  do 
win  themselves  a  kind  of  grace-like  newness.  But  the  eldest 
of  the  present  and  the  newest  of  the  past  language  is  best." 

46.  Moral  Dignity. — Both  in  what  is  spoken  and  in  the 
manner  in  which  it  is  spoken  we  should  be  governed  by  the 
moral  purpose  of  language.  All  words  or  phrases  that  directly 
or  by  association  are  offensive  to  moral  purity  or  delicacy  of 
feeling  are  to  be  shunned.  This  rule  prohibits : 


84  STYLE.  Sec.  46 

1.  Words  and  phrases  that  express  directly  and  vividly 
what  is  base,  vicious,  coarse,  and  disgusting — whatever  is 
low,  or  becomes  low  by  being  spoken  of. 

We  can  not  always  avoid  mentioning  such  objects;  when 
compelled  to  do  so,  we  should  employ  euphemisms, — that  is, 
general  or  foreign  terms,  or  circumlocutions  which  express  the 
same  idea  but  vaguely  and  less  offensively.  As  a  people  ad- 
vances in  refinement,  its  language  purifies  itself;  many  words 
arc  banished  as  indecent  that  were  formerly  used  without 
offense.  We  find  in  our  earlier  writers — as  Chaucer  and 
Shakespeare — a  coarseness  of  phrase  that  would  not  be  toler- 
ated in  a  writer  of  the  present  century.  This  is  to  be  explained 
in  part  by  the  ruder  manners  of  their  times,  and  in  part  by  the 
fact  that  the  words  had  not  then  the  ignoble  associations  that 
are  now7  connected  with  them.  Words  become  degraded  by 
use;  being  brought  in  contact  with  unworthy  persons  and 
themes,  they  lose  their  purity  and  elevation,  and  sink  to  the 
vulgar  dialect.  These  authors  are  not  to  be  judged  by  the 
present  standard ;  we  should  wrong  them  were  we  to  attribute 
to  them  the  depravity  which  would  be  justly  attributed  to  a 
writer  of  the  present  day  who  should  be  guilty  of  like  gross- 
ness. 

In  shunning  coarseness  the  writer  must  not  run  into  the 
other  extreme  of  scrupulousness  and  prudery.  The  ill-timed 
and  excessive  use  of  euphemisms  is  the  indication  of  conscious 
impurity.  A  corrupt  mind  can  defile  the  most  innocent  words. 
There  are  many  objects  which  it  is  a  transgression  of  conven- 
tional decorum  to  make  the  themes  of  conversation,  but  it  is 
vulgar  affectation  in  a  writer,  who  finds  it  necessary  to  refer  to 
them,  to  hunt  for  euphemistic  expressions  instead  of  using  their 
proper  and  perfectly  harmless  names. 

2.  The  wanton  misapplication  of  terms  that  designate 
moral    qualities. — This   pernicious    conniption    is  becoming 
prevalent  in  popular,  especially  in  humorous  literature.     One 
form  of  it  is  the  use  of  words  that  conceal  and  palliate  vice  by 
representing  it  as  trifling  or  innocent,  thus  subverting  the  dis- 


Sec.  46  THE  CHOICE  OF  WORDS.  85 

tinctions  between  right  and  wrong,  which  are  clearly  marked  in 
every  cultivated  language.  Another  form  is  in  making  use  of 
low,  degrading  terms  when  speaking  of  sacred  objects  and  rela- 
tions. Another,  and  the  most  common  form,  is  that  of  apply- 
ing the  terms  which  are  set  apart  to  denote  what  is  honorable, 
noble,  and  elevated,  to  vile  and  contemptible  persons  and 
objects. 

This  abuse  of  language  is  the  sign  of  the  moral  deterioration 
of  a  community,  of  the  decay  of  self-respect  and  of  reverence 
for,  and  belief  in,  what  is  highest  and  best,  and  is  the  most 
effective  means  of  increasing  the  evil  from  which  it  springs. 

3.  Vulgarisms,  or  corruptions  of  language — whether  in  the 
form  of  its  words  or  in  their  application — that  are  indications 
of  ignorance?  and  want  of  culture.  They  offend  against  the 
structure,  clearness,  harmony,  and  dignity  of  the  language, 
and  are  suggestive  of  what  is  low  and  mean ;  they  are,  there- 
fore, violations  of  respectable  use,  and  although  admitted  occa- 
sionally into  conversation  and  familiar  writings,  they  are  ex- 
cluded from  serious  discourse,  whether  oral  or  written.  Here 
belong — 

(1)  Colloquialisms. — We  tolerate  in  ordinary  conversation 
anomalous  words  which  betray  capriciousness  in  their  forma- 
tion;   contractions  and  mutilations,  trite  and  trivial  expres- 
sions, and  popular  ephemeral  words,  which  have  no  place  in 
literary  diction. 

(2)  Skcmj. — The  use  of  slang  is  one  of  the  characteristics  of 
our  popular  prose  style.     Many  think  that  they  are  thereby 
writing  in  an  easy,  familiar  manner  adapted  to  the  taste  and 
capacity  of  their  readers.     Slang  consists  of  words  and  phrases, 
which  in  themselves  may  be  either  significant  or  meaningless, 
used  in  an  arbitrary  and,  generally,  ludicrous  sense.     They  are 
often  metaphorical  and  racy,  but  degrade  a  subject  by  low  and 
unsuitable  associations,  and  are  therefore  unfit  expressions  for 
serious  thoughts.     The}'  are  not  a  portion  of  the  permanent 
language;    they  spring  up  one  knows  not  where,  are  popular 
for  a  short  time,  and  suddenly  disappear.     Occasionally,  how- 


86  STYLE.  Sec.  46 

ever,  one  is  adopted  by  respectable  usage  and  takes  its  place 
among  the  lawful  words. 

(3)  Cant. — By  cant  is  usually  understood  a  vocabulary  of 
words  peculiar  to,  and  characteristic  of,  a  particular  profession, 
trade,  class,  or  sect.  Its  use  beyond  its  proper  sphere  betrays 
the  influence  of  occupation  and  external  circumstances,  is  an 
obtrusion  of  the  personal  and  professional,  and  the  manifesta- 
tion of  a  contracted,  vulgar  mind.  Properly,  cant  is  a  jargon 
composed  of  words  that  have  lost  their  significance,  and  are 
used  without  any  distinct  meaning  attached  to  them, — which 
may  mean  any  thing  or  nothing.  Thus,  much  of  the  nomen- 
clature of  philosophical  and  theological  systems  passes  into 
cant.  This  form  of  cant  is  a  violation  of  propriety  rather  than 
of  the  moral  elevation  of  language.  Its  source,  however,  is 
un truthfulness ;  those  who  do  not  write  and  speak  from  their 
own  experience  will  almost  inevitably  fall  into  it. 

47.  Propriety. — Propriety  consists  in  employing  words  that 
express  the  exact  ideas  to  be  conveyed,  and  that  are  appropri- 
ate to  the  nature  and  purpose  of  the  discourse.  It  is  opposed 
to  inaccuracy  and  incongruity. 

Accuracy. — As  every  word  is  the  representative  of  a  defi- 
nite notion,  we  should  select  those  which  according  to  estab- 
lished usage  are  the  authorized  symbols  of  the  thoughts  which 
we  wish  to  express.  A  writer  is  deficient  in  accuracy  who 
chooses  words  that  are  significant  of  different  ideas  from  those 
he  means  to  suggest.  It  may  seem  superfluous  to  warn 
against  using  words  that  have  no  affinity  in  sense  to  those 
whose  place  they  occupy,  but  the  fault  is  a  common  one.  He 
may  also  be  deficient  in  accuracy  by  using  terms  that,  instead 
of  conveying  his  ideas  precisely  and  completely,  contain  more 
or  less  than  he  intends.  The  principal  sources  of  inaccuracy 
are: 

1.  The  misapplication  of  words  similar  in  sound,  or  derived 
from  the  same  root,  but  of  entirely  different  meaning;  for  ex- 
ample, observance  for  observation,  conscience  for  consciousness, 


Sec,  47  THE  CHOICE  OF  WORDS.  87 

predicate  for  predict,  demean  for  debase,  corporeal  punishment 
for  corporal  punishment,  exceptionable  for  exceptional. 

2.  The  want  of  exact  discrimination  in  the  use  of  synony- 
mous words. 

Synonyms  are  usually  defined  as  words  of  the  same  lan- 
guage and  same  grammatical  class,  identical  in  meaning. 
There  may  be,  especially  in  a  composite  language  like  the 
English,  words  that  are  precisely  equivalent.  But  use  will 
soon  make  a  difference  between  them;  for  language  tends 
always  to  reject  what  is  useless.  Some  drop  out  of  use,  others 
are  appropriated  to  poetry  or  science,  while  with  others  what 
Coleridge  has  called  the  desynonymizing  process  takes  place; 
different  shades  of  meaning  are  attached  to  the  different  words, 
and  from  being  equivalent  terms  they  become  synonymous. 
Strictly,  synonyms  are  words  of  the  same  language  and  gram- 
matical class  that  agree  in  their  main  idea,  but  differ  in  their 
subordinate  and  accessory  ideas.  They  are  not  identical,  but 
similar  in  meaning;  the  points  of  similarity  are  easily  recog- 
nized, while  great  care  is  often  required  to  discover  the  precise 
point  of  difference. 

With  the  improvement  in  knowledge  and  refinement  the 
differences  of  objects  are  more  carefully  noticed  and  recorded  in 
the  language.  The  number  of  synonymous  words  is  constantly 
increasing,  and  with  their  increase  the  language  acquires 
greater  perspicuity  and  precision. 

An  acquaintance  with  the  shades  of  meaning  of  these  words 
is  an  indispensable  condition  of  accurate  thinking  and  writing. 
The  writer  must  avoid  confounding  them  with  each  other.  By 
such  a  misapplication  of  them  he  fails  to  express  his  thought ; 
the  general  idea  may  be  conveyed,  but  the  secondary  one,  that 
limits  and  determines  the  general,  will  not.  This  promiscuous 
use  of  distinct  words  is  also  a  corruption  of  the  language,  as  it 
tends  to  destroy  its  logical  clearness  and  precision.  Some- 
times, however,  it  is  not  necessary  to  discriminate  accurately 
between  the  various  shades  of  meaning ;  it  answers  the  purpose 
of  the  writer  to  give  merely  the  general  idea;  in  such  cases  he 
can  use  different  words  to  express  the  same  thought. 


88  STYLE.  Sec.  47 

The  accumulation  of  synonymous  words  is  also  to  be  avoided. 
The  effect  is  to  perplex  the  reader,  who  naturally  endeavors  to 
discover  a  meaning  in  each  of  the  words,  whereas  the  writer 
has  used  them  as  equivalents ;  as  when  the  truth  and  veracity, 
or  the  courage  and  bravery  of  a  person  are  spoken  of. 

Synonyms  are  sometimes  combined  for  the  sake  of  complete- 
ness. One  word  does  not  give  the  thought,  and  two  or  more 
must  be  joined  to  express  the  full  meaning.  This  is  not  a  case 
of  improper  accumulation  of  synonymous  words,  but  of  bring- 
ing together  several  words  to  denote  a  single  idea,  which  can 
not  be  expressed  with  sufficient  fullness  and  accuracy  by  a 
single  term. 

REMARK. — The  English  language  owes  much  of  its  richness  in  syno- 
nyms to  its  composite  character  and  the  readiness  with  which  it  admits 
foreign  additions.  The  following  examples  will  show  from  what  sources 
our  synonyms  are  chiefly  derived.  It  will  be  seen  that  some  belong  to  the 
same  stock,  others  are  drawn  from  different  languages : 

Ex. — 1.  Mute,  L.;  Voiceless,  A.-S.  2.  Durable,  L.;  Lasting,-  A.-S. 
3.  Bold,  A.-S.;  Brave,  Fr.  4.  Place,  Fr.;  Position,  L.  5.  Weariness, 
A.-S.;  Fatigue,  Fr.;  Lassitude,  L.  6.  Trick,  A.-S.;  Finesse,  Fr.;  Arti- 
fice, L.;  Device,  Ital.;  Stratagem,  Gr.  7.  Honesty  and  Integrity,  L. 
8.  Mild,  Soft,  Meek,  A.-S. 

3.  The  use  of  equivocal  terms.  Equivocal  terms  are  words 
and  phrases  that  admit  of  being  understood  in  a  sense  different 
from  that  in  which  the  writer  applies  them.  They  are  found  in 
every  part  of  speech,  and  are  the  converse  of  synonyms,  being 
words  identical  in  form  but  differing  in  meaning. 

The  use  of  words  having  a  plurality  of  meanings  is  una- 
voidable ;  language  is  finite,  while  the  thoughts  to  be  expressed 
are  of  illimitable  variety.  ISTo  language  has  a  separate  sign 
for  every  single  notion;  hence  most  words  represent  a  cluster 
of  related  ideas;  they  are  but  hints  which  the  writer  must 
leave  to  the  intelligence  of  his  readers  to  interpret.  He  must 
enable  them  to  do  this  with  ease  and  certainty.  It  is  a  viola- 
tion of  accuracy  to  suggest  a  wrong  meaning,  or  to  leave  it 
doubtful  which  one  of  the  ideas  denoted  by  the  word  is  intended 
to  be  conveyed. 


Sec.  47  THE  CHOICE  OF  WORDS.  89 

There  are  some  words  which  with  the  same  form  signify 
totally  different  objects ;  as,  for  example,  the  word  rent,  which 
signifies  a  rent  caused  by  tearing,  and  rent  paid  for  houses  and 
land.  Such  words  are  not  properly  equivocal. 

Another  class  is  composed  of  words  which  with  identity  of 
form  denote  different  aspects,  relations,  and  applications  of  the 
same  notion.  It  is  in  this  class  that  all  the  really  important 
equivocal  terms  are  found.  Thus  the  same  word,  or  rather  the 
same  combination  of  letters,  may  admit  of  being  applied : 

(1)  In  a  wide  and  in  a  narrow  sense;  for  example,  thought, 
in  its  wider  sense,  denotes  all  mental  acts ;  in  its  narrower,  it 
is  confined  to  the  acts  of  the  understanding. 

(2)  Literally  and  figuratively  ;  as  in  the  words,  icalk,  weigh, 
upright,  etc. 

(3)  Actively  and  passively ;  for  example,  imagination  signi- 
fies both  the  act  of  imagining  and  the  result  of  the  act ;  so  also 
perception,  induction,  deduction,  inference,  and  many  others  of 
the  same  kind. 

(4)  Subjectively  and  objectively ;    for  example,  a  fearful 
heart  (subjective),  &  fearful  height  (objective);  so  also  terms 
denoting  both  a  sensation  and  its  cause ;  as,  for  example,  heat, 
cold,  and  others. 

(5)  Absolutely  and  relatively;  for  example,  oldest  inmate, 
oldest  scholar,  etc.     Is  it  meant  that  he  is  the  oldest  inmate, 
i.  e.,  has  been  longest  time  in  the  establishment "?  or  that  he  is 
the  oldest  person  among  the  inmates  or  scholars'?     In  the  first 
sense  it  is  used  relatively ;  in  the  latter,  absolutely. 

There  are  many  words  that  are  so  indefinite  as  to  be  a  source 
of  great  confusion  and  error  when  admitted  into  philosophical 
discussions.  Thus  the  word  nature  is  employed  in  a  wide 
sense,  as  equivalent  to  the  sum  of  created  things,  and  in  a  nar- 
rower sense,  as  equivalent  to  material  objects ;  sometimes  act- 
ively— u  Xature  relieves  disease,77 — sometimes  passively ;  in  a 
figurative  and  literal  sense,  etc.  Law  is  another  of  these  very 
indefinite  words;  it  does  not  mean  the  same  thing  in  the 
phrases,  law  of  nature,  law  of  thought,  moral  law.  Idea  is 
another  instance :  "  Word  arid  thing,77  says  Sir  Wm.  Hamil- 

Rhet.  8 


90  STYLE.  Sec.  47 

ton,  "  ideas  have  been  the  crux  pliilosopliorum^  since  Aristotle 
sent  them  packing,  to  the  present  day." 

Congruity. — The  terms  chosen  should  not  only  express  the 
ideas  accurately,  but  should  at  the  same  time  be  appropriate  to 
their  nature  and  importance,  and  to  the  purpose  of  the  dis- 
course. This  rule  is  violated  in  many  ways  $  only  some  of  the 
most  general  offenses  against  it  need  be  mentioned  here. 

The  first  is  the  fault  which  has  become  prevalent  of  employ- 
ing a  phraseology  alien  from  the  common  forms  of  speech.  It 
has  been  already  shown  that  words  and  phrases  are  tolerated  in 
conversation  which  are  not  admissible  into  a  composition.  But 
in  the  effort  to  avoid  a  coarse  and  too  colloquial  style,  many  go 
to  the  opposite  extreme  of  an  equally  offensive  fine  writing. 
A  genuine  popular  style  is  free  from  both  pedantry  and  coarse- 
ness. The  most  cultivated  writers  incline  to  the  plain  and 
familiar ;  they  adapt  the  expression  to  the  thought,  and  where 
choice  is  allowed  select  the  common,  idiomatic  words. 

What  should  be  the  proportion  of  Saxon  and  foreign  words 
in  a  discourse  can  not  be  fixed  by  any  rule.  The  diction  of  a 
correct  writer  will  vary  with  the  subject  he  discusses ;  when  it 
is  a  question  of  science  or  criticism,  the  Latin  element  will 
preponderate ;  and  native  terms,  when  it  is  a  familiar  object 
or  occurrence.  The  general  rule  is,  that,  other  things  being 
equal,  Saxon  words  are  to  be  preferred.  It  may  be  adopted  as 
a  safe  principle  in  writing,  "  that  every  Latinism  which  can  be 
displaced  by  a  Saxonism  is  a  defect  avoided,  if  not  a  beauty 
gained." 

The  best  writers  of  the  present  day  recognize  the  importance 
of  the  native  element  of  the  language,  and  employ  a  larger 
proportion  of  Anglo-Saxon  words  than  the  writers  of  the  last 
century.  But  with  the  greater  number  of  writers  the  reverse 
is  true.  They  make  use  of  a  latinized  English,  or  an  angli- 
cized Latin  phraseology,  whatever  the  subject  and  occasion.  It 
is  characteristic  of  this  style  to  eschew  the  familiar  expressive 
terms  of  daily  life,  and  to  employ  on  the  most  trivial  themes 
sounding,  uncommon  words.  It  is  supposed  that  the  use  of 


Sec.  47  THE  CHOICE  OF  WORDS.  01 

such  terms  gives  greater  dignity  to  style.  On  the  contrary,  it 
renders  it  formal  and  monotonous ;  destroys  all  force  and  grace, 
which  are  inseparable  from  naturalness ;  and  frequently  be- 
comes ludicrous  from  the  contrast  between  the  feeble,  common- 
place thoughts  and  the  labored,  pompous  expression. 

Ex. — The  following  extract  from  a  criticism  in  the  London  Times  of 
one  of  Thackeray's  works  will  exemplify  the  faults  here  condemned  :  "  It 
lias  been  customary  of  late  years  for  the  purveyois  of  amusing  literature 
to  put  forth  opuscules  denominated  Christmas  books,  with  the  ostensible 
intention  of  swelling  the  tide  of  exhilaration  or  other  expansive  emotions 
incident  on  the  exodus  of  the  old,  or  the  inauguration  of  the  new  year." 

This  pretentious  style,  which  Trench  calls,  "  that  worst  and  most  offen- 
sive kind  of  bad  English,  which  disguises  poverty  of  thought,  and  lack  of 
any  real  command  over  the  language,  by  the  use  of  big,  hollow,  lumbering 
Latin  wrords,"  has  been  treated  of  very  fully  by  Dean  Alford  in  his  Plea 
for  the  Queen's  English,  and  by  Richard  Grant  White  in  his  work  upon 
Words  and  their  Uses.  A  few  examples  from  these  works  are  here  given. 
A  man  is  an  " individual,"  or  a  "person,"  or  a  "party;"  a  woman  is  a 
"  female,"  a  name  which  might  belong  to  any  animal  tribe ;  a  child  is  a 
"juvenile,"  and  children  en  masse  are  expressed  by  that  most  odious  term, 
"the  rising  generation."  A  man  going  home  is  set  down  as  "an  indi- 
vidual proceeding  to  his  residence."  Instead  of,  most  of  the  people  of  the 
place,  we  have,  "the  majority  of  the  residents  in  the  locality."  Men 
nowadays  "experience"  a  sensation;  the  weather  "experiences"  a 
change.  It  would  be  an  unpardonable  want  of  dignity  to  say :  "  When  I 
came  to  the  spot,  I  met  a  man  running  towards  me  with  his  hands  held 
up."  It  must  read,  "  When  the  very  reverend  gentleman  arrived  in  close 
proximity  to  the  scene  of  action,  he  encountered  an  individual  proceeding 
at  a  rapid  pace  in  the  opposite  direction,  having  both  his  hands  elevated 
in  an  excited  manner."  Alford,  p.  '245  et  seq. 

The  following  sentence  is  found  in  the  report  of  a  committeee  of  the 
legislature  of  New  York  on  street  railways :  "  It  is  not  to  be  denied  that 
any  system  which  demands  the  propulsion  of  cars  at  a  rapid  rate,  at  an 
elevation  of  fifteen  or  twenty  feet,  is  not  entirely  consistent,  in  public  esti- 
mation, with  the  greatest  attainable  immunity  from  the  dangers  of  trans- 
portation." Worth  ami  their  Uses,  p.  32. 

Another  offense  against  congruity  is  exaggeration ;  that  is, 
the  use  of  language?  disproportionate  to  the  importance  of  the 
ideas  to  be  expressed.  Such  an  inflated,  overcharged  style  is 
characteristic  of  much  of  our  popular  prose.  It  is  inconsistent 


92  STYLE.  Sec.  47 

with  truthfulness,  as  it  gives  a  false  view  of  the  subject,  or  of 
the  writer's  feelings  in  reference  to  it.  Though  employed  for 
the  sake  of  emphasis  its  effect  is  the  re  verse  5  the  endeavor  to 
give  importance  to  what  is  low  and  feeble  by  using  strong  lan- 
guage, only  renders  the  feebleness  more  apparent.  It  destroys 
both  the  logical  precision  and  the  moral  dignity  of  a  language. 
The  use  of  strong  terms  on  ordinary  subjects  and  occasions  is  a 
certain  sign  of  poverty  of  thought  and  shallowness  of  feeling. 
Sobriety  of  judgment  which  sees  things  as  they  are  and  appre- 
ciates them  at  their  real  worth,  and  sincerity  and  earnestness 
of  feeling,  employ  the  language  of  moderation,  such  as  ex- 
presses less  than  is  felt  rather  than  more. 

48.  Conclusion. — The  rules  which  have  been  given  relate  to 
words  used  in  their  literal,  proper  sense.  By  observing  them 
we  present  a  clear  and  truthful  statement  of  our  thoughts  to 
the  understanding. 

But  when  we  aim  at  the  highest  possible  degree  of  perspicu- 
ity and  vivacity ;  when  we  would  call  into  activity  the  reader's 
powers  in  reproducing  the  ideas ;  and  when  we  would  excite 
his  feelings  and  passions  and  move  his  will,  we  must  endeavor 
to  bring  the  notions  down  from  the  abstract  generality  in  which 
they  are  presented  to  the  understanding  in  their  appropriate 
signs,  and  exhibit  them  in  sensible  forms  to  the  imagination. 

The  means  of  doing  this  are  the  Figures  of  Speech,  which 
will  be  considered  in  the  next  chapter. 


CHAPTER  III. 

FIGURES   OF   SPEECH. 

49.  Figures  of  Speech  in  general — Definition. — Figures 
of  speech  are  deviations  from  the  strictly  grammatical  and 
logical  modes  of  expression,  by  means  of  which  ideas  and 
thoughts  are  conveyed  with  vividness  and  force. 


Sec.  49  FIGURES  OF  SPEECH.  03 

Are  natural  and  necessary. — The  real  nature  of  the  rela- 
tion of  figures  to  thought  is  very  generally  misunderstood. 
The  majority  of  rhetoricians  treat  of  them  as  mere  ornaments, 
which  render  a  discourse  more  pleasing,  and  which  may  be 
used  or  rejected  at  pleasure.  Some  writers — as,  for  example, 
Locke — condemn  their  employment  in  works  intended  to  con- 
vey knowledge  and  truth ;  they  are  pronounced  inventions, 
which  serve  only  to  insinuate  wrong  ideas,  move  the  passions, 
and  mislead  the  judgment.  • 

But  instead  of  being  inventions  of  art,  they  are  the  natural, 
and  therefore  necessary  and  universal  forms,  in  which  excited 
imagination  and  passion  manifest  themselves.  The  young  and 
the  old,  the  barbarous  and  the  civilized,  all  employ  them  uncon- 
sciously. Languages  in  their  earlier  state  are  highly  figurative ; 
as  they  grow  older  they  lose  their  natural  picturesqueness  and 
become  collections  of  lifeless  symbols.  These  abstract  forms 
are  regarded  by  rhetoricians  and  grammarians  as  the  natural 
and  ordinary  forms  of  speech,  and  so  they  describe  figures  as 
departures  from  the  usual  forms  of  expression. 

They  are,  it  is  true,  deviations  from  the  forms  in  which  cool, 
unimpassioned  reflection  expresses  itself,  but  not  from  the  ordi- 
nary forms  of  the  expression  of  emotion  and  affection.  Excited 
feeling  manifests  itself  in  the  movements  of  the  body  ;  much 
more  will  it  leave  its  impress  on  language.  For  a  person  under 
great  excitement  to  express  the  thoughts  that  agitate  him  in 
the  ordinary  logical  forms,  would  be  as  unnatural  as  for  one 
whose  mind  is  perfectly  calm  to  employ  the  language  of  passion. 
Nor  is  it  true  that  the  use  of  figures  obscures  the  thoughts. 
Abstract  ideas  are  communicated  to  the  illiterate  much  more 
clearly  by  figurative  expressions  than  by  their  appropriate  gen- 
eral terms. 

Their  classification. — A  great  deal  of  ingenuity  has  been 
expended  in  discriminating  and  classifying  the  figures  of 
speech.  Almost  every  violation  of  strict  grammatical  law  has 
been  made  a  figure,  and  received  a  name.  In  this  process  of 


94  STYLE.  Sec.  49 

endless  division  and  subdivision  their  real  nature  and  signifi- 
cance have  been  lost  sight  of. 

The  numerous  and  complicated  classifications  of  the  older 
Ehetorics  need  not  be  enumerated,  as  they  are  of  but  little 
practical  value,  and  at  the  present  day  are  very  generally  neg- 
lected. It  will  enable  us  to  understand  better  the  nature  and 
use  of  the  figures  of  speech  to  keep  in  view  the  twofold  purpose 
which  they  accomplish.  In  the  first  place,  they  reproduce 
^ideas  with  something  of  the  fullness  and  vividness  of  objects  of 
sense;  in  the  second  place,  they  give  emphasis  to  the  thoughts 
the  truth  and  importance  of  which  the  writer  wishes  to  impress 
on  his  hearers.  Some  figures  are  better  adapted  to  the  first, 
others  to  the  second  of  these  purposes.  We  may  therefore 
divide  them  into  two  main  classes  or  divisions : 

1.  Figures  of  Intuition. 

2.  Figures  of  Emphasis. 

50,  Figures  of  Intuition, — These  figures  present  an  idea 
or  judgment  in  a  sensible  form  to  the  imagination,  either 
directly,  by  clothing  abstract  notions  in  a  concrete  image,  by 
endowing  inanimate  objects  with  life  and  sense,  and  by  bring- 
ing distant  objects  near  and  into  living  connection  with  us; 
or  indirectly,  by  comparing  them  with  familiar  and  striking 
objects. 

They  give  a  distinct,  vivid  image  from  which  the  under- 
standing constructs  the  notion  to  be  conveyed;  at  the  same 
time  they  give  emphasis  to  the  notion. 

They  are  Tropes,  Personification,  Figures  of  Ideal  Presence, 
Similes,  Allusions,  and  Epithets. 

51,  Tropes  in  general. — Tropes  form  that  class  of  figures  in 
which  there  is  the  substitution  of  one  idea  for  another,  with  the 
transfer  of  the  word  denoting  the  one  notion  to  the  other.     The 
word  is  thus  no  longer  applied  in  its  ordinary,  established  sig- 
nification, but  in  a  derivative  one.     There  must  always  be 
some  relation  existing  between  the  ideas  that  justifies  the  ex- 
change.    The  use  of  tropes  is  only  a  particular  manifestation  of 


Sec.  52  FIGURES  OF  SPEECH.  05 

the  natural  process  by  which  the  mind  seeks  to  realize  general 
notions ;  the  individual  is  substituted  for  the  general,  the  con- 
crete for  the  abstract. 

The  points  to  be  noticed  in  all  tropes  are : 

1st.  The  original,  main  thought,  or  the  proper,  literal  signi- 
fication of  the  term. 

2d.  The  substituted  thought,  or  the  derivative  meaning  of 
the  term. 

3d.  The  relation  between  the  two,  or  the  principle  on  which 
the  transfer  has  been  made. 

The  relations  which  serve  as  foundations  for  this  figure  are 
those  of  the  whole  and  its  parts,  cause  and  effect,  resemblance 
and  analogy,  and  all  relations  that  determine  the  association 
of  thoughts.  The  tropes  are,  Synecdoche,  Metonymy,  and 
Metaphor,  representing  single  notions,  and  Allegory,  represent- 
ing a  judgment. 

52.  Synecdoche. — Synecdoche  is  a  trope  founded  on  the 
relation  of  the  whole  to  its  parts,  and  consists  in  the  substitu- 
tion of  a  part  for  the  whole. 

There  are  various  forms  of  synecdoche,  answering  to  the 
different  kinds  of  wholes  and  parts. 

1.  A  species  is  put  for  the  genus,  an  individual  for  the 
species;  as,  bread  for  food;  silver  and  gold  for  riches;  uThey 
shall  beat  their  sicords  into  plowshares,  and  their  spears  into 
pruning-hooJcs" — swords   and    spears    are    here   used  for  all 
weapons  of  war,  plowshares  and  pruning-hooks  for  the  imple- 
ments of  the  peaceful  arts ;  a  Homer,  instead  of  an  epic  poet ; 
a  Demosthenes,  instead  of  an  orator.     "  Such  an  Orbilius  mars 
more  scholars  than  he  makes" — Orbilius,  instead  of  a  harsh 
school-master. 

Many  of  these  tropes  have  become  trite ;  as,  a  Solomon,  for 
a  wise  man ;  a  Judas,  for  a  traitor.  In  introducing  new  ones 
care  must  be  taken  that  their  application  be  instantly  recog- 
nized. 

2.  A  quality  or  attribute  of  an  individual  object  or  person  is 
put  for  the  individual:  "Thus  spoke  the  tempter";  "the  phi- 


06  STYLE.  Sec.  52 

loHOphcr"  for  Aristotle.  Although  seemingly  substituting  the 
general  for  the  particular,  it  really  presents  the  individual  with 
t;ome  prominent  characteristic,  and  thus  makes  the  notion  more 
distinct. 

3.  The  matter  of  an  object  is  put  for  the  form;  i.  e.,  the 
material  for  the  thing  made:  "The  breathing  marble  arid  the 
glowing  canvas" ;    so  steel  for  sword,  lead  for  bullet.     The 
object  is  thus  presented  more  vividly  by  suggesting  some  of 
its  visible  aspects. 

4.  A  part  of  an   integrate  whole  is  given   instead  of  the 
whole;  as,  fifty  sail  for  fifty  ships;  the  waves  for  the  ocean; 
the  head  for  the  whole  body. 

5.  A  determinate  number  is  put  for  an  indeterminate,  the 
singular  for  the  plural,  and,  in  general,  a  less  for  a  greater; 
as,  "ten  thousand  swords";  "an  old  man  is  venerable." 

The  effects  of  this  trope  are  owing  to  its  conveying  what  is 
abstract  and  general  by  means  of  particular  and  individual 
notions  that  can  be  pictured  in  the  imagination;  and  to  its 
presenting,  in  sensible  objects,  those  prominent,  characteristic 
parts  which  suggest  most  naturally  and  readily  the  entire 
object. 

It  is  not,  then,  a  matter  of  indifference  what  parts  are 
chosen.  That  only  should  be  chosen  which  is  appropriate  to 
the  idea  and  purpose  of  the  writer,  and  corresponds  to  what 
is  said  of  the  whole  which  it  represents.  "We  descried  a 
sail,"  is  proper;  but  we  can  not  say,  "Our  sails  plowed  the 
deep,"  as  there  is  no  connection  between  the  sails  and  the  act 
of  plowing.  "  The  enemy  are  in  possession  of  the  walls," 
conveys  fully  and  appropriately  their  being  masters  of  the 
city.  We  say  roof  for  house,  when  the  idea  of  shelter  is  the 
prominent  one  in  the  mind;  as,  "I  adjure  all  roofs";  but 
hearth  or  fireside  when  the  ideas  of  home  intimacies  and  en- 
joyments are  to  be  suggested. 

The  converse  of  synecdoche  is  the  substitution  of  the  general 
for  the  particular;,  as,  the  genus  for  the  species,  the  whole  for 
the  part,  the  plural  for  the  singular;  for  example,  a  vessel  for 
a  ship;  the  ignorance  of  mortals ;  weapon  for  sword,  etc.  Its 


Sec.  53  FIGURES  OF  SPEECH.  07 

effect  is  the  opposite  of  the  synecdoche,  as  it  renders  the  im- 
pression less  vivid.  It  is  one  of  the  usual  forms  of  euphe- 
mism. 

53.  Metonymy. — Metonymy  is  a  trope  founded  upon  the 
necessary  relations  of  objects.  It  substitutes  one  notion  for 
another  that  is  closely  connected  with  it.  The  principal  of 
these  relations  are : 

1.  Cause  and  effect.     The  cause  is  put  for  the  effect ;  as,  the 
author  for  his  work,  the  inventor  for  his  invention,  the  ances- 
tor for  his  descendants;    for  example,  "I  read  Milton"]    a 
])a  ry,  for  the  safety-lamp ;  Israel,  for  the  Jews.     Here  belongs 
the  use  of  mythological  names ;  as,  Bacchus,  for  wine ;  Cerex, 
for  bread,  and  the  like.     Other  examples  of  this  form  of  me- 
tonymy are :  He  shall  bear  his  iniquity;  your  sin  will  find  you 
out ;  he  supports  them  by  his  labor;  to  bask  in  the  sun. 

The  effect  is  put  for  the  cause;  as,  shade,  for  trees;  drunken- 
ness, for  wine ;  to  send  death  into  the  ranks  of  the  enemy. 
Physical  effects  are  put  for  the  actions  or  mental  states  causing 
them  ;  as,  tears,  for  sorrow ;  sweat  of  his  brow,  for  labor.  A 
passion  or  emotion  is  put  for  its  exciting  cause,  or  the  object  on 
which  it  terminates ;  as,  the  terror  of  the  oppressed,  i.  c.,  he 
who  inspires  terror.  The  instrument  is  put  for  the  agent,  the 
process,  or  the  effect;  as,  to  write  a  good  hand;  the  sword 
without;  the- pen  is  mightier  than  the  sword;  "I  will  speak 
dayycrs  to  her,  but  use  none." 

2.  Time  and  place.     The  time  is  put  for  what  existed  or 
happened  in  it ;  as,  antiquity,  the  nineteenth  century,  a  refined 
or  barbarous  age,  instead  of  the  people  then  living.     The  name 
of  a  place  for  what  is  contained,  or  produced,  or  took  place  in 
in  it;  as,  "the  whole  theater  applauded";  "  they  devoured  the 
land"]  "he  drank  the  fatal  cup";  "to  be  fond  of  the  bottle"; 
"France  would  not  consent."     Calico,  demijohn,  china,  are 
metonymies   of  this  class,  which  have   lost   their   figurative 
meaning. 

3.  Possessor  and  tiling  possessed.     The  owner  is  put  for  his 
property,  and  -vice  versa;  as,  "to  devour  the  families  of  the 

Rhet.  9 


98  STYLE.  Sec.  53 

widow,"  instead  of  their  means  of  subsistence;  the  land, 
house,  farm,  pays  tax  or  rent,  instead  of  the  owner. 

4.  Sign  and  thing  signified.  Instead  of  naming  purely  in- 
tellectual objects  their  visible  symbols  are  named;  as,  the 
laurel,  instead  of  victory ;  the  olive  branch,  instead  of  peace ; 
the  throne,  the  purple,  the  scepter;  the  crescent  and  the 
cross. 

The  force  of  this  trope  is  owing  to  its  employing  expressions 
that  present  the  notion  in  a  more  concrete,  particular  form, 
than  the  proper  name  of  the  object.  It  loses  its  force  when 
abstract  and  general  notions  take  the  place  of  the  less  general 
and  sensible ;  for  example,  the  clouds  drop  blessings,  for  fruit- 
ful showers.  A  process  of  reasoning  is  required  in  such  cases 
to  gain  the  idea,  and  the  attention  is  thus  withdrawn  from  the 
thought. 

Antonomasia.— -  This  trope  is  of  the  same  nature  as  me- 
tonymy, although  it  can  not  be  said  to  exhibit  the  idea  more 
vividly.  It  consists  in  putting  in  place  of  a  proper  name, 
another  notion  which  may  be  either  in  apposition  to  it  or  predi- 
cated of  it.  Its  principal  use  is  to  avoid  the  repetition  of  the 
same  name,  and  the  too  frequent  use  of  the  pronoun.  The 
most  frequent  forms  of  it  are,  naming  a  person  from  his  parent- 
age or  country;  as,  Achilles  is  called  Pelides ;  Napoleon 
Bonaparte,  the  Corsican:  or  naming  him  from  some  of  his 
deeds;  as,  instead  of  Scipio,  fJie  destroyer  of  Carthage;  in- 
stead of  Wellington,  the  hero  of  Waterloo.  In  making  use 
of  this  trope  such  designations  should  be  selected  as  are  well 
known,  or  can  be  easily  understood  from  the  connection,  and 
free  from  ambiguity, — that  is,  are  not  equally  applicable  to 
other  well  known  persons. 

54.  Metaphor. — The  metaphor  is  a  trope  founded  upon  re- 
semblance. It  is  the  substitution  of  one  notion  for  another  in 
virtue  of  some  resemblance  or  analogy  between  them.  It  is 
often  called  an  abridged  simile.  It  agrees  with  it  in  being 
founded  upon  resemblance,  but  differs  from  it  in  structure.  In 


Sec.  54  FIGURES  OF  SPEECH.  99 

the  metaphor  there  is  no  explicit  statement  of  comparison ;  one 
object  takes  the  place  of  the  other ;  in  the  simile  we  say  that 
one  object  is  like  another ;  as,  "  Man  is  as  the  flower  of  the 
field":  in  the  metaphor  wre  say  that  one  is  the  other;  as,  "All 
llesh  is  grass." 

The  resemblances  upon  which  metaphors  are  founded  are 
either  direct  or  indirect.  They  are  direct,  when  the  objects  are 
alike  in  certain  common  qualities  or  modes  of  action.  It  is 
enough  to  put  one  notion  for  the  other  5  the  resemblance  is  rec- 
ognized at  once ;  as  when  we  say  fa&fe-land,  or  to  fly,  instead 
of  to  move  swiftly. 

They  are  remote,  when  the  similarity  is  not  of  qualities,  but 
of  relation.  We  say,  "  the  evening  of  life,"  and  all  under- 
stand that  old  age  is  meant.  There  is  not  any  direct  resem- 
blance between  old  age  and  evening,  but  the  relation  of  the 
evening  to  the  day  is  the  same  as  the  relation  of  old  age  to  a 
man's  life.  We  substitute  the  notion  life,  of  the  second  term 
of  the  proportion,  for  day  of  the  first  part,  and  by  so  doing  we 
change  the  signification  of  evening ;  it  loses  its  proper  ordinary 
meaning  and  acquires  a  secondary  metaphorical  one.  The 
qualifying  phrase,  of  life,  shows  that  the  word  evening  is  to  be 
taken  figuratively,  and  also  explains  it;  it  shows  that  we  are 
to  understand  by  it  the  close  of  a  human  life.  At  the  same 
time  the  use  of  the  word  evening  imparts  a  new  character  to 
the  notion  life ;  it  is  no  longer  general  and  abstract,  but  is  rep- 
resented to  the  imagination  as  a  single  day  with  its  parts  morn- 
ing, noon,  evening,  and  followed  by  the  night.  The  metaphor, 
u  The  ship  plowrs  the  waves,"  is  another  example  of  remote 
resemblance.  There  is  the  transfer  of  the  action  of  one  object 
to  a  related  one.  There  is  no  direct  resemblance  between  a 
plow  and  a  ship,  but  there  is  an  analogy  between  their  effects  5 
what  the  action  of  the  plow  is  to  the  ground,  is  the  action  of 
the  ship  on  the  waves. 

The  metaphors  from  analogy,  or  remote  resemblance,  are  the 
most  frequent  and  important ;  by  many  they  are  regarded  as 
the  only  metaphors.  Thus  Bishop  Copleston  defines  the  meta- 
phor as  "  a  contracted  comparison  in  which  two  terms  of  the 


100  STYLE.  Sec.  54 

analogy  are  omitted,  and  no  mention  is  made  of  the  simili- 
tude." 


Divided  into  three  kinds. — Metaphors  are  divided  with  re- 
spect to  the  objects  between  which  the  exchange  is  made  into 
three  classes. 

1.  Those  in  which  the  qualities  and1  acts  of  our  intellectual 
and  moral  nature  are  represented  by  external,  material  objects; 
as,  when  we  speak  of  weighing  a  matter,  halting  between  two 
opinions.     So,  also,  the  light  of  knowledge,  the  darkness  of 
superstition,  a  ray  of  hope,  etc.     The  terms  used  to  denote  the 
acts  of  the  mind  are  applied  primarily  to  external  objects ;  as, 
spirit,  reflection,  attention,  acuteness,  sagacity,  etc. 

Ex. — "  Philosophy,  justly  curious  to  observe  the  structure  of  our  facul- 
ties, arid  the  nature  of  those  wondrous  operations  by  which  man  alone,  of 
all  creatures,  has  acquired  a  history,  endeavors  to  untwine  the  finished 
web  of  thought,  and  lay  out  the  variegated  filaments, — the  warp  of  con- 
stant nature  and  the  woof  of  flying  experience, — from  which  the  texture 
seems  to  have  been  composed."  "Outbursts  of  song  and  pulses  of  prayer 
are  as  successive  strokes  of  the  ever  beating  wing  of  aspiration." 

2.  Those  in  which  physical  properties  are  represented  by  in- 
tellectual and  moral.     As  the  former  materializes  the  spiritual, 
this   spiritualizes   matter;    gives  life  to  what  is   inanimate, 
thought  and  feeling  to  the  senseless ;  as,  the  sun  rejoices,  the 
morning  laughs,  imperious  ocean,  angry  flood.     This  meta- 
phor is  the  simplest  form  of  personification. 

3.  Those  in  which  both  the  objects  belong  to  the  same 
sphere — both  are  material,   or  both  spiritual;    as,   when  the 
body  is  called  the  "soul's  dark  cottage";  the  sun,  "fair  IN  a t- 
ure  s  eye.77 

Its  force. — The  metaphor  is  one  of  the  most  frequent  and 
one  of  the  boldest  of  the  figures  of  speech.  Its  effect  is  not 
merely  to  render  discourse  intelligible,  but  to  impart  to  it  the 
greatest  possible  degree  of  vivacity.  It  accomplishes  this  end 
by  giving  the  idea  with  greatest  brevity — calling  up  by  a  word 


Sec.  54  FIGURES  OF  SPEECH.  101 

what  would  require  otherwise  a  whole  sentence  to  communi- 
cate ;  by  exhibiting  the  acts  and  qualities  of  living  objects  by 
means  of  other  objects,  which  set  them  forth  in  livelier  colors; 
and  by  presenting  abstract  notions,  and  ideas  of  a  purely  intel- 
lectual order  in  images  that  address  the  senses.  It  thus  econo- 
mizes the  attention,  calls  the  imagination  into  activity,  and 
(Mil ploys  the  understanding  in  tracing  the  resemblance,  solving 
the  apparent  contradiction  which  it  involves,  and  reproducing 
from  the  image  the  precise  thought. 

Rules  for  its  use. — The  improper  employment  of  metaphors 
is  one  of  the  most  frequent  faults  of  style.  The  laws  for  their 
use  and  formation  must  be  borne  in  mind.  As  metaphors  are 
the  natural  expression  of  excited  imagination  and  feeling,  they 
must  be  judged  by  the  laws  of  these  powers.  A  cold,  logical 
analysis  would  condemn  some  of  the  most  noble  and  forcible. 

1.  There  must  be  a  real  resemblance  between  the  two  ob- 
jects, and  this  resemblance  must  not  be  too  close,  nor  in  an 
accidental  and  insignificant  quality. 

Where  the  objects  are  nearly  related,  and  the  points  of 
similarity  are  numerous  and  apparent,  nothing  is  gained  by 
comparing  them ;  there  must  be  resemblance  in  the  midst  of 
differences  to  give  employment  either  to  the  imagination  or  the 
understanding.  To  substitute  one  member  of  a  class  for  an- 
other of  the  same — as  one  man,  or  one  flower,  for  another — 
seldom  adds  to  the  vivacity  of  the  representation,  while  the 
interchange  of  objects  of  different  species  exhibits  the  thought 
in  a  stronger  light. 

But  while  metaphors  should  be  drawn  from  objects  that 
differ  in  the  main,  they  must  not  be  founded  on  superficial 
qualities  and  relations.  Their  force  depends  on  the  intimacy 
of  the  relation  between  the  notions  compared.  It  is  not  meant 
that  there  must  be  a  real  analogy  in  essential  points  such  as 
the  understanding  demands  in  the  process  of  reasoning,  but 
such  a  similarity  as  will  enable  the  imagination  naturally  and 
easily  to  identify  the  two  objects.  Where  this  is  not  the  case 
the  slightness  of  the  resemblance  is  only  made  more  apparent 


102  STYLE.  Sec.  54 

by  the  attempt  to  combine  them ;  and  the  metaphor  is  called 
forced,  trivial,  far-fetched;  it  may  excite  surprise,  and  can  be 
used  with  effect  in  comic  productions,  but  is  unfit  for  serious 
discourse. 

Many  metaphors,  in  which  natural  objects  are  represented  by 
images  drawn  from  artificial  productions,  are  violations  of  this 
rule ;  as  when  the  heavens  are  spoken  of  as,  "  this  gorgeous 
apparatus."  The  following  from  Addison,  though  pronounced 
by  some  beautiful  and  expressive,  is  exceptionable.  Speaking 
of  Milton's  art,  in  the  description  of  the  descent  of  the  band  of 
angels  into  Paradise,  after  the  Fall,  he  employs  this  meta- 
phor: "The  whole  theater  of  nature  is  darkened  that  this  glo- 
rious machine  may  appear  in  all  its  luster  and  magnificence." 

Some  metaphors  violating  this  rule  please  by  their  inge- 
nuity, and  are  admissible  in  sprightly  works  addressing  the 
fancy,  although  out  of  place  in  the  more  elevated  productions 
of  the  imagination  and  of  serious  prose ;  as  when  the  dew  is 
described  as,  "  The  tears  of  the  day  for  the  loss  of  the  sun." 

2.  The  metaphors  must  be  true.     They  must  not  contradict 
what  we  know  of  the  objects  and  events  from  which  they  are 
drawn ;  as  when  one  speaks  of  the  "  strings  of  an  instrument 
touched  by  a  tone";   or  of  "gathering  the  honey  of  earthly 
wisdom  not  from  flowers,  but  from  thorns." 

3,  A  metaphor  must  have  simplicity.     This  is  opposed  to 
abstruseness  and  want  of  intelligibility.     The  point  of  resem- 
blance must  be  obvious — one  that  the  persons  addressed  will 
perceive  at  once.     A  metaphor  that  can  not  be  understood,  or 
is  understood  only  with  difficulty,  obscures  the  idea  instead  of 
illustrating  it.     Learned  and  technical  metaphors  are  in  most 
cases  violations  of  this  rule.     Where  there  is  danger  of  obscu- 
rity a  writer  may  often  prevent  it  by  beginning  with  a  simile  and 
passing  to  the  metaphor,  or  by  inserting  it  as  a  parenthesis; 
sometimes  a  qualifying  word  removes   the   difficulty.      Fre- 
quently he  introduces  a  somewhat  bold  metaphor  by  an  ac- 
knowledgment of  its  audacity  or  an  apology  for  it;  at  other 
times  he  adds  an  explanation  that  serves  to  render  it  both 
clear  and  forcible.     These  bold  metaphors  are  frequently  em- 


Sec,  54  FIGURES  OF  SPEECH.  103 

ployed,  even  in  didactic  discourse,  to  bring  into  prominence 
some  important  idea  ;  the  necessity  of  explaining  the  metaphor 
fixes  the  attention  upon  the  idea,  and  impresses  it  upon  the 
mind. 

Ex.  —  "  The  subsequent  movement  of  the  English  speech  has  not  been 
in  a  right  line  of  recession  from  the  scriptural  dialect.  It  lias  been  rather 
a.  curve  of  revolution  around  it.  Were  it  not  carrying  the  metaphor  too 
far,  I  would  say  it  is  an  elliptical  curve,  and  that  the  speech  of  England 
has  now  been  brought  by  it  much  nearer  to  that  great  solar  center,  the 
focus  of  genial  warmth  and  cheerful  light,  than  it  was  a  century  ago." 

4.  A  metaphor  must  have  unity.  It  must  offer  a  distinct, 
consistent  image  to  the  imagination.  The  qualities  and  acts 
ascribed  to  the  representative  notion  must  be  such  as  properly 
belong  to  it.  The  terms  employed  must  be  understood  in  their 
literal  sense  with  respect  to  the  representative  object,  and  in 
their  secondary,  or  figurative,  sense  with  respect  to  the  object 
represented. 

Unity  is  violated  : 

(1)  By  combining  the  literal  and  the  metaphorical.  The 
metaphor  must  be  altogether  figurative;  the  attributes  and 
predicates  introduced  must  not  be  understood  partly  in  their 
literal  and  partly  in  their  figurative  sense.  Where  the  true 
and  false  are  thus  mingled  no  distinct  image  is  offered,  and  the 
mind  is  confused  in  attempting  to  reduce  the  parts  to  unity. 

Ex.  —  "My  heart  is  turned  to  stone;  I  strike  it  and  it  hurts  my  hand." 
In  the  first  clause  "  stone"  is  used  figuratively  ;  in  the  second,  it  is  taken 
literally.  "  Be  Mowbray's  sins  so  heavy  in  his  bosom,  that  they  may  break 
his  foaming  courser's  neck"  Here  "  heavy  "  is  first  used  in  a  figurative, 
then  in  a  literal  sense.  In  both  examples  the  rule  is  violated  which 
requires,  that  the  terms  employed  be  understood  in  their  figurative  sense 
with  respect  to  the  object  represented. 


(2)  By  blending  different  and  incompatible  images. 
only  must  all  the  parts  be  figurative,  but  all  must  be  parts  of 
the  same  figure.  The  writer  must  end  with  the  same  meta- 
phor with  which  he  began  —  not  begin  with  a  storm  and  end 


104  STYLE.                                  Sec.  54 

with  a  conflagration.  Such  mixed  metaphors  are  very  fre- 
quent. They  present  no  distinct  image,  although  we  may 
guess  the  meaning. 


Ex. — "  There  is  not  a  single  view  of  human  nature  which  is  not  suffi- 
cient to  extinguish  the  seeds  of  pride."  Two  incompatible  images  are  here 
combined.  Instead  of  the  word  "  extinguish,"  there  should  be  employed 
one  that  corresponds  to  the  word  "  seeds." 

"  We  are  constantly  called  upon  to  observe  how  the  noxious  passions, 
which  spring  up  in  the  heart  like  weeds  in  a  neglected  garden,  are  dissi- 
pated by  the  liyht  of  truth." 

"  Every  religious  idea  has  its  season.  It  is  as  though  the  drops  of  light 
in  the  night  heavens  must  wheel  in  their  course  before  the  sun  can  arise 
and  smite  them  with  death." 

"  The  religious  idea  wrapped  in  the  shell  of  naturalism  lay  like  a  gland 
on  the  earth.  The  sun  of  prosperity  shone  on  it,  the  dew  of  intelligence 
moistened  it,  the  germ  of  life  burst  the  hard  casing  which  had  imprisoned 
it,  and  became  a  vital  religion  flowering  in  polytheism,  fruiting  into  mono- 
theism." 


It  is  difficult  to  apply  this  rule  in  all  cases,  and  to  decide 
what  are  and  what  are  not  mixed  metaphors.  Some  critics  are 
overfastidious.  Many  words  have  lost  their  figurative  sense, 
and  suggest  directly  the  idea  without  the  intervention  of  an 
image.  These  can  be  combined  in  a  manner  which,  if  we 
regard  their  literal  meaning,  would  be  incongruous.  Others 
vacillate  between  their  literal  and  figurative  meaning,  and  still 
retain  enough  of  the  figurative  to  produce  a  confused,  inconsist- 
ent image  when  combined.  The  words  fertile  and  source  have 
so  far  lost  their  figurative  sense,  that  it  would  be  hypercritical 
to  object  to  the  expression  "  fertile  source."  The  inconsistency 
of  the  following  is  felt  by  all :  "  Upon  the  style  it  is  that  these 
perplexities  depend  for  their  illumination." 

5.  Metaphors  should  be  suited  to  the  nature  and  purpose  of 
the  discourse,  and  to  the  ideas  to  be  illustrated.  Many  that 
are  appropriate  to  poetry  are  unsuitable  for  prose ;  and  in  oratory 
many  are  admissible  that  are  excluded  from  didactic  discourse. 
They  must  correspond  to  the  importance  of  the  subject,  neither 
unduly  elevating  it  nor  sinking  it  below  its  proper  dignity. 


Sec.  55  FIGURES  OF  SPEECH..  105 

Ex.— "At  length,  however,  it  floated  through  both  houses  on  the  tide 
of  a  great  majority,  and  steered  into  the  safe  harbor  of  royal  approba- 
tion." ''Squeezing  a  parable." 

G.  A  metaphor  should  have  novelty.  In  every  language 
metaphorical  expressions  are  current  which  no  longer  suggest 
an  image,  but  which  are  not  considered  as  proper  terms;  as, 
for  example,  "the  mantle  of  charity,"  "the  tooth  of  time." 
Such  trite,  stereotyped  metaphors  produce  none  of  the  effects 
of  figurative  language.  They  give  a  delusive  appearance  of 
novelty  and  vivacity,  and  leave  the  impression  of  feebleness  of 
thought  and  coldness  of  feeling. 

There  are  other  metaphors  which,  although  not  new,  and 
riot  calling  up  vividly  any  image,  nevertheless  suggest  resem- 
blances and  analogies,  and  thus  impart  some  degree  of  vivacity 
to  the  style;  as,  "the  evening  of  life." 

These  may  be  occasionally  used  in  ordinary  moods,  although 
out  of  place  in  the  expression  of  strong  passion  and  excited 
emotion. 

By  the  use  of  trite  metaphors  a  writer  is  often  betrayed  into 
some  of  the  grossest  offenses  against  the  law  of  unity;  as, 
"  We  must  keep  the  ball  rolling  until  it  becomes  a  thorn  hi 
the  side  of  Congress."  "  And  now  I  must  embark  into  the 
feature  on  which  this  question  chiefly  hinges." 

7.  A  metaphor  should  awaken  pleasing  associations.  This 
forbids  all  that  are  coarse  and  mean;  such,  for  example,  as  are 
drawn  from  the  animal  nature,  low  employments,  and  disgust- 
ing objects.  They  are  unnatural,  as  the  state  of  mind  that 
prompts  to  the  use  of  metaphorical  language  is  an  elevated 
one,  which  seeks  to  dignify  the  idea  instead  of  degrading  it. 

55.  Allegory. — Not  only  may  we  represent  in  sensible  im- 
ages general  notions,  which  are  expressed  by  single  terms,  and 
form  the  subjects  and  predicates  of  propositions;  but  we  may 
in  the  same  manner  convey  general  truths — that  is,  facts  and 
principles  which  are  expressed  by  a  proposition  or  series  of 
propositions.  Life,  for  example,  is  a  single  notion,  which  may 
be  embodied  in  an  image;  as  when  I  say,  "the  voyage  of  life," 


106  STYLE.  Sec.  55 

or  "  the  battle  of  life,"  etc.  In  this  we  have  a  metaphor.  But 
when  it  is  said,  "  Unity  gives  strength,"  or  "  Dissension  brings 
weakness/7  a  general  truth  is  asserted.  This  truth  may  be 
conveyed  figuratively,  as  in  the  story  of  the  old  man  and  the 
bundle  of  sticks;  we  have  then  an  allegory.  The  essential 
difference  between  the  allegory  and  the  other  tropes  is,  not  that 
the  former  is  extended  while  the  latter  are  brief — the  allegory 
may  be  short,  as  in  many  proverbs — but  that  the  one  is  the 
figurative  expression  of  a  thought  or  general  truth,  the  other  of 
notions  or  general  ideas. 

An  allegory,  then,  is  a  continuous  narration  or  description 
intelligible  when  taken  literally,  which  is  intended  to  inculcate 
a  truth  different  from  what  is  contained  in  the  literal  state- 
ment, but  bearing  some  relation  to  it.  It  is  like  a  hiero- 
glyphic— one  thing  is  said,  another  thing  is  meant.  We  are 
called  upon  to  interpret  it,  and  to  collect  from  what  appears 
that  which  the  writer  wishes  us  to  understand.  If  we  do  not 
go  beyond  the  literal  statement,  we  know  nothing  of  what  is 
meant. 

The  laws  for  the  structure  and  use  of  tropes  in  general  apply 
to  allegories. 

1.  They  must  be  perspicuous.     "  The  allegory  must  dwell 
in  a  transparent  palace."     The  relation  of  its  two  parts — the 
image,  or  proper  literal  sense,  and  that  which  is  intended  to  be 
declared,  the  secondary,  allegorical  sense — must  be  such  that 
the  meaning  can  be  immediately  seized. 

2.  The  various  details  of  the  image  must  have  their  counter- 
part in  the  fact  which  is  to  be  set  forth.     This  rule,  however, 
must  not  be  enforced  too  rigidly.     Minor  details  are  admitted 
for  ornament,  which  are  not  to  be  considered  as  parts  of  the 
allegory. 

3.  The  literal  and  figurative  must  not  be  mingled  or  con- 
fused.    It  must  be  in  itself  an  intelligible,  consistent  state- 
ment.    All  the  terms  employed  should  be  literally  applicable 
to  the  image  or  representative  subject ;  no  conditions  or  acts 
should  be  ascribed  to  it  that  are  not  in  accordance  with  its  real 
nature. 


Sec.  56  FIGURES  OF  SPEECH.  107 

Parable, — The  parable  is  one  form  of  the  allegory.  It  is 
properly  the  exhibition  of  a  religious  truth  by  means  of  facts 
from  nature  and  human  life.  It  is  not  pretended,  however, 
that  the  statements  are  historically  true ;  they  are  offered  only 
as  a  means  of  conveying  a  higher  general  truth.  But  they  are 
always  true  to  nature;  the  laws  of  the  nature  of  the  different 
beings  introduced  are  strictly  observed,  and  the  events  are  such 
as  might  have  taken  place. 

Fable. — The  fcible  differs  from  the  parable  in  this,  that  it 
attributes  the  actions  and  words  of  rational  beings  to  what  is 
inanimate  and  irrational.  They  are  purely  fictitious — brutes 
and  plants  are  made  to  think,  and  speak,  and  act  like  men. 
The  laws  of  the  nature  of  the  actors  in  the  fable  are  thus  vio- 
lated, and  what  is  ascribed  to  them  could  not  take  place. 

Allegory,  parable,  and  fable  are  also  distinct  species  of  com- 
position, the  nature  and  laws  of  which  are  treated  of  in  the 
Theory  of  Poetry. 

Ex. — The  student  may  consult  the  following  passages:  Isa.  v:  1-7; 
Ps.  Ixxx:  8-16  ;  the  parable  of  Nathan,  2  Sam.  xii :  1-4  ;  and  the  parables 
of  the  Savior ;  the  fable  of  Jotkam,  Judges  ix  :  7-15. 

56.  Personification. — Personification  consists  in  represent- 
ing inanimate  objects  and  abstract  notions  as  living,  and  ascrib- 
ing to  them  the  actions  of  persons.  The  tropes  give" to  notions 
a  visible  form;  this  endows  them  with  life,  intelligence,  and 
activity.  The  other  figures  tend  to  this,  and  blend  with  it,  so 
that  it  is  often  an  essential  part  of  them. 

It  is  founded  on  the  natural  tendency  of  the  mind  when  agi- 
tated by  passion,  to  transfer  to  outward  objects  the  mental  and 
moral  qualities  of  which  it  is  conscious.  Its  force  and  beauty 
arise  from  its  exhibiting  lifeless  things  in  a  human  form,  and 
as  possessing  human  sensibility  and  affection. 

The  qualities  and  acts  of  inanimate  things  are  sometimes 
described  by  attributes  belonging  to  living  and  intelligent 
beings  ;  as  when  it  is  said,  u  a  furious  dart,"  u  a  raging  tem- 
pest," u  a  frowning  mountain."  In  such  expressions  we  have 


108  STYLE.  Sec.  56 

the  germ  of  personification,  but  it  is  more  convenient  to  class 
them  with  the  tropes,  and  confine  personification  to  those  forms 
in  which  inanimate  objects,  physical  phenomena,  and  mental 
processes  and  qualities  are  represented  as  performing  the  ac- 
tions of  living  persons.  Thus,  inanimate  objects  are  exhibited 
as  addressing  us,  or  as  addressed  by  us,  or  as  acting  like  intel- 
ligent beings;  abstract  qualities,  as  hope,  fear,  death,  religion, 
slander,  etc.,  are  represented  with  the  form  and  qualities  of 
persons. 

Ex. — "O  eloquent,  just,  and  mighty  Death!  whom  none  could  advise, 
thou  Imst  persuaded;  what  none  hath  dared,  thou  hast  done;  and  whom 
all  the  world  hath  flattered,  thou  only  hast  cast  out  of  the  world  and 
despised;  thou  hast  drawn  together  all  the  far-stretched  greatness,  all 
the  pride,  cruelty,  and  ambition  of  man,  and  covered  it  all  over  with 
these  two  narrow  words,  hie  jacet."  Raleiyli. 

Cautions  with  respect  to  using  it. — 1.  As  the  use  of  this 
figure  is  prompted  by  the  instinctive  craving  of  our  nature  for 
sympathy,  no  objects  should  be  personified  that  are  not  of  suffi- 
cient dignity  and  importance  to  awaken  such  feelings;  not  only 
low,  trivial  objects,  but  as  a  general  rule  artificial  productions 
can  not  be  personified  with  a  good  effect. 

2.  As  each  one  is  intended  to  gratify  a  particular  passion,  it 
should  be  confined  to  it,  and  whatever  is  contrary  or  foreign  to 
it  should  b*e  excluded. 

3.  There  should  be  a  perfect  consistency  of  the  parts;  the 
qualities  ascribed  should  all  be  such  as  belong  to  intelligent 
beings,  and  should  harmonize  in  one  character. 

4.  The  higher  forms  of  personification  can  be  admitted  only 
into  the  most  animated  prose;  they  are  employed  much  more 
freely  in  poetry.     The  personification  of  abstract  qualities  is 
frequent  even  in  didactic  prose. 

57.  Ideal  Presence. — This  includes  several  figures  which 
represent  objects  distant  in  space  or  time  as  present. 

1.  The  present  tense  used  for  a  past  or  future. — The  low- 


Sec.  57  FIUUKKS   OF  SPEECH.  100 

est  form  is  that  in  which  past  or  future  events  are  narrated  in 
the  present  tense,  thus  making  the  reader  a  spectator.  This 
mode  of  narrating  is  especially  adapted  to  discourses  that 
address  the  passions,  but  it  is  also  admissible  in  familiar  dis- 
course. Its  use  is  limited  by  the  following  conditions: 

(1)  It  should  be  justified  by  the  subject  and  the  writer's  feel- 
ings.    It  produces  an  unpleasant  effect  when  the  subject  does 
not  call  for  such  a  degree  of  vivacity,  or  when  there  is  a  want 
of  lively  interest  on  the  part  of  the  writer. 

(2)  It  should  not  be  too  frequently  employed  nor  too  pro- 
longed.    It  becomes  wearisome  when  excessive. 

Ex. — "The  circumstances  now  clearly  in  evidence  spread  out  the 
whole  scene  before  us.  Deep  sleep  liad  fallen  on  the  destined  victim,  and 
on  all  beneath  his  roof.  A  healthful  old  man,  to  whom  sleep  was  sweet, — 
the  first  sound  slumbers  of  the  night  held  him  in  their  strong-  embrace. 
The  assassin  enters,  through  the  window  already  prepared,  into  an  unoc- 
cupied apartment.  With  noiseless  foot  he  jpaees  the  lonely  hall 
he  winds  up  the  ascent  of  the  stairs,  and  readies  the  door  of  the  chamber. 
Of  this  he  moves  the  lock,  by  soft,  continued  pressure,  till  it  turns  on  its 
hinges  without  noise,  and  he  enters  and  beholds  his  victim  before  him. 
.  .  .  The  deed  is  done.  He  retreats,  retraces  his  steps  to  the  window, 
passes  out  through  it  as  he  came  in,  and  escapes"  Webster. 

2.  Vision. — Another  figure  of  this  class  is  vision.  In  this 
the  writer  declares  himself  an  eye-witness  of  some  event,  and 
depicts  it  as  taking  place  in  his  presence.  It  is  the  expression 
of  powerful  emotion,  and  should  be  used  but  seldom  and  with 
greatest  caution. 

Ex. — From  a  speech  against  impressing  seamen.  "Would  the  learned 
gentleman  not  let  one  father,  one  brother,  or  one  child  escape  in  this  gen- 
eral scene  of  oppression  and  injustice  ?  Methinks  I  hear  the  heartfelt 
shrieks  of  the  miserable  wife  this  instant  piercing  my  ears,  and  entreating, 
in  accents  of  rage  and  despair,  the  midnight  ruffian  not  to  drag  from  hei 
side  the  father  of  her  children  and  her  only  support!  I  think  I  hear  the 
aged,  helpless  parent,  in  accents  of  sinking  woer  misery,  and  distress, 
bewailing  the  loss  of  his  dutiful,  affectionate  son!" 

"Methinks  I  see  in  my  mind  a  noble  and  puissant  nation  rousing 
herself  like  a  strong  man  after  sleep,  and  shaking  her  invincible  locks; 
methinks  I  see  her,  as  an  eagle,  mewing  her  mighty  youth,  and  kindling 


110  STYLE.  Sec.  57 

her  undazzled  eyes  at  the  full  midday  beam  ;  purging  and  scaling  her  long 
abused  sight  at  the  fountain  itself  of  heavenly  radiance ;  while  the  whole 
noise  of  timorous  and  flocking  birds,  with  those  also  that  love  the  twilight, 
flutter  about,  amazed  at  what  she  means,  and  in  their  envious  gabble 
would  prognosticate  a  year  of  sects  and  schisms."  Milton. 

3.  Apostrophe. — Another  figure  of  this  class  is  apostrophe, 
which  consists  in  addressing  the  absent  as  though  they  were 
present.     It  brings  those  who  are  distant  in  time  or  place  into 
our  immediate  presence,  and  represents  them  as  listening  to  us. 
The  figure  receives  additional  force  when  the  address  takes  the 
form  of  questions. 

We  may  thus  address  living  persons  who  are  absent,  the 
dead,  former  ages,  future  ages?  and  invisible  beings. 

Ex. — "But,  alas,  you  are  not  all  here.  Time  and  the  sword  have 
thinned  your  ranks.  Prescott,  Putnam,  Stark,  Brooks,  Read,  Pomeroy, 
Bridge !  our  eyes  seek  for  you  in  vain  amid  this  broken  band.  You  are 
gathered  to  your  fathers,  and  live  only  to  your  country  in  her  grateful 
remembrance  and  your  own  bright  example."  Webster. 

"  Yes,  noble  Galileo,  thou  art  right,  i  It  does  move.'  Bigots  may  make 
thee  recant  it,  but  it  moves,  nevertheless.  .  .  .  Close  now,  venerable 
sage,  that  sightless,  tearful  eye ;  it  has  seen  what  man  never  before  saw ; 
it  has  seen  enough.  Hang  up  that  poor  little  spy-glass ;  it  has  done  its 
work.  .  .  .  Rest  in  peace,  great  Columbus  of  the  heavens, — like  him 
scorned,  persecuted,  broken-hearted."  Everett, 

4.  Sermocination. — Still  another  of  the  same  class  is  ser- 
mocination.     In  this  figure  absent,  invisible,  or  supernatural 
beings  are  represented  as  addressing  us.     It  may  be  combined 
with  apostrophe ;  the  discourse  then  takes  the  form  of  animated 
dialogue. 

Ex. — "Ask  the  very  soul  of  Peter,  and  it  shall  undoubtedly  make  you 
itself  this  answer :  l  My  eager  protestations  made  in  the  glory  of  my 
ghostly  strength,  I  am  ashamed  of;  but  those  crystal  tears  wherewith 
my  sin  and  weakness  was  bewailed  have  procured  my  endless  joy ;  my 
strength  hath  been  my  ruin,  and  my  fall  my  stay.' "  Hooker. 

"Suppose  that  God  should  address  you  in  these  words:  'O  man,  I 
would  to-day  take  away  this  heart  and  give  you  another ;  you  have  only 
the  power  of  man,  I  will  give  you  that  of  God.'" 


Sec.  58  FIGUKES  OF  SPEECH.  11 J 

58.  Simile. — A  simile  is  the  explicit  statement  of  the  resem- 
blance between  two  objects  or  notions  belonging  to  different 
classes. 

Like  the  metaphor,  it  renders  a  notion  clearer  and  more 
vivid  by  comparing  it  with  another  that  is  better  known,  and 
can  be  more  easily  pictured  in  the  imagination  ;  it  differs  from 
it  in  that  it  does  not  identify  the  two  notions,  but  asserts  explic- 
itly their  similarity. 

Strictly  speaking,  a  simile  is  composed  of  two  members,  one 
containing  the  notion  to  be  illustrated,  the  other  the  illustrative 
notion  j  ordinarily  the  illustrative  member — introduced  by  like, 
a  v? — is  regarded  as  the  simile.  The  order  of  the  arrangement 
of  the  members  is  not  invariable ;  whether  the  illustrative  shall 
precede  or  follow  that  which  contains  the  notion  to  be  illustra- 
ted, is  determined  by  rhetorical  considerations.  There  may  be 
also  a  difference  in  the  prominence  given  to  the  different  mem- 
bers. The  main  notion  may  be  expanded  and  its  likeness  to 
the  illustrative  notion  be  but  briefly  indicated,  or  the  reverse. 
In  the  older  Rhetorics  the  former  was  called  comparison,  and 
the  latter  simile. 

The  objects  compared  must  belong  to  different  classes.  This 
constitutes  the  difference  between  a  simile  and  an  example. 
A  comparison  between  two  individuals  of  the  same  species,  or 
between  two  species  of  the  same  genus,  is  not  a  simile.  The 
objects  must  be  dissimilar  in  their  general  nature,  but  have 
certain  qualities  in  common  which  can  be  perceived  imme- 
diately, or  sustain  similar  relations.  We  have  therefore  two 
classes  of  similes — those  of  direct  resemblance  and  those  of 
analogy.  The  objects  may  be  both  from  the  same  sphere — . 
both  material  or  both  spiritual, — or  from  different  spheres — 
one  spiritual,  the  other  material. 

Ex. — "  The  sun  was  now  resting  his  huge  disc  upon  the  edge  of  the 
(<n-<«l  ocean,  and  gilded  the  accumulation  of  towering  clouds  through 
which  lie  had  traveled  the  livelong  day,  and  which  now  assembled  on  all 
sides,  like  misfortunes  and  disasters  around  a  sinking  empire  and  falling 
monarch."  W.  Scott. 

"  As  used  in  this  rude  state,  language  resembles  the  harsh  music  of  the 


112  STYLE.  Sec.  58 

Alpine  horn,  blown  by  the  rude  Swiss  herd-boy.  It  is  only  when  the  lofty 
peaks  around  take  it  up  that  it  is  transmuted  by  their  echoes  into  exqui- 
site melody."  Rogers. 

"His  melancholy  genius  plays  in  wild  and  rapid  flashes,  like  lightning 
round  the  scathed  oak,  about  the  fallen  greatness  of  man."  Hallam. 

Different  orders  of  Similes. — The  use  of  similes  involves 
some  degree  of  activity  of  the  imagination,  but  no  powerful 
disturbing  passion.  They  are  natural  only  in  a  state  of  mind 
that  permits  a  deliberate  comparison  of  objects.  They  serve 
chiefly  to  explain,  elevate,  and  adorn.  A  perfect  simile  ex- 
hibits the  object  in  a  clearer  light,  in  new  and  pleasing  aspects, 
and  awakens  the  appropriate  emotions. 

The  lowest  class  of  similes  is  composed  of  the  purely  didac- 
tic, whose  main  purpose  is  to  render  obscure  notions  distinct. 
It  is  sometimes  difficult  to  discriminate  them  from  logical 
illustrations.  The  rules  to  be  observed  with  respect  to  this 
class  are: 

1.  The  object  with  which  the  illustrated  notion  is  compared 
must  be  a  familiar  one.     The  less  known  must  be  compared 
with  what  is  better  known. 

2.  The  point  of  similarity  should  be  discovered  without  any 
effort  of  attention. 

3.  No  circumstances  should  be  admitted  which  are  not  abso- 
lutely necessary  to  convey  the  notion  clearly  and  fully. 

In  this  class  of  similes  dignity  and  elevation  are  not  sought 
after  5  if  the  analogy  is  just  and  the  object  be  explained,  noth- 
ing further  is  demanded;  the  more  homely  similes  are  often 
chosen  as  the  more  effective. 

But  there  are  similes  of  a  higher  class,  which,  besides  giving 
a  more  distinct  representation  of  an  object,  confer  additional 
pleasure  by  the  novelty  of  the  comparison,  and  by  associating 
the  object  with  elevated  and  agreeable  subjects. 

Ex. — "The  style  of  Canning  is  like  the  convex  mirror,  which  scatters 
every  ray  of  light  which  falls  upon  it,  and  shines  and  sparkles  in  whatever 
position  it  is  viewed;  that  of  Brougham  is  like  the  concave  speculum, 
scattering  no  indiscriminate  radiance,  but  having  its  light  concentrated 
into  one  intense,  tremendous  focus." 


Sec.  59  FIGURES  OF  SPEECH.  113 

"The  ideas,  as  well  as  the  children,  of  our  youth  often  die  before  us; 
:ind  our  minds  represent  to  us  those  tombs  to  which  we  are  approaching, 
where,  though  the  brass  and  marble  remain,  yet  the  inscriptions  are 
effaced  by  time,  and  the  imagery  molders  away."  Locke. 

"As  iron  girders  and  pillars  expand  and  contract  with  the  men'  varia- 
tions of  temperature,  so  will  the  strongest  conviction  on  which  the  human 
intellect  rests  its  judgment  vary  with  the  changes  of  the  human  heart,  and 
the  building  is  safe  only  when  these  variations  are  foreseen  and  allowed 
for  by  a  wisdom  intent  on  self-knowledge. "  Bulwer. 

It  is  essential  to  the  perfection  of  such  similes  that  they  be 
not  too  greatly  extended  nor  fanciful.  The  poet  is  allowed  to 
expand  his  similes  and  to  incorporate  details  which,  while  not 
necessary  to  illustrate  a  notion,  embellish  it  and  call  up  agree- 
able associations ;  but  this  is  forbidden  a  prose  writer.  When 
the  resemblance  is  not  apparent,  or  is  arbitrary  and  fanciful, 
similes,  instead  of  rendering  a  notion  clearer,  obscure  it.  Such 
similes  belong  rather  to  the  fancy  than  to  the  understanding 
and  imagination ;  they  surprise  and  dazzle,  but  accomplish 
none  of  the  ends  of  prose. 

Ex. — The  following,  though  not  strictly  fanciful,  have  an  air  of  subtlety 
and  ingenuity  which  makes  their  use  of  doubtful  propriety  : 

"Our  planet,  thus  instinct  with  devout  life,  girded  with  intent  and  per- 
ceptive souls,  covered  over  as  with  a  divine  retina  by  the  purer  conscience 
of  humanity,  is  like  a  living  eye,  watching  on  every  side  the  immensity  of 
Deity  in  which  it  floats." 

"  The  mighty  spirits  of  our  race  are  as  the  lyric  thoughts  of  God  that 
drop  and  breathe  from  his  almighty  solitude." 

59.  Allusions. — Allusions  may  be  considered  a  species  of 
comparison.  They  give  greater  clearness  and  vividness  to  a 
notion  by  indicating  its  connection  with  some  well  known 
object  or  event.  The  connection  is  not  exhibited  in  full,  but 
merely  pointed  out;  it  is  left  to  the  reader  to  complete  the 
image.  In  order  to  accomplish  their  object  they  must  be  made 
to  familiar  objects ;  when  an  explanation  is  required  they  are 
faulty.  Unmeaning  allusions,  which  stand  in  no  relation  to 
the  thought,  must  be  avoided. 

The  principal  sources  of  allusions  are,  history,  the  sacred 

Rhet.  10 


114  STYLE.  Sec.  59 

scripture,  classical  and  standard  authors.     Passing  events  and 
the  ephemeral  productions  of  the  day  may  also  afford  them. 

Ex. — "  Genial,  almost  to  a  miracle,  is  the  soil  of  sorrow ;  wherein  the 
smallest  seed  of  love,  timely  falling,  becometh  a  tree,  in  whose  foliage  the 
birds  of  blessed  song  lodge  and  sing  unceasingly." 

"  The  inundation  of  lawless  power,  after  covering  the  rest  of  Europe, 
threatens  England  ;  and  we  are  exactly,  most  critically,  placed  in  the  only 
aperture  where  it  can  be  successfully  repelled,  in  the  Thermopylae  of  the 


60.  Epithets. — Epithets  deserve  special  mention  as  a  means 
towards  vivacity.  Adjectives  are  joined  to  substantives,  to 
limit  them  and  thus  form  particular  notions  out  of  general 
ones;  as  when  we  say,  "a  white  rose,"  aa  gold  ring;"  when 
thus  used  they  are  indispensable  to  the  completeness  of  the 
notion,  and  can  not  be  omitted  without  destroying  it.  But 
adjectives  are  also  used,  not  to  add  any  thing  to  the  sense,  but 
to  signify  a  quality  of  the  object  to  which  it  is  desired  to  direct 
attention ;  as,  resistless  lightning,  heartless  pride.  When  thus 
used  they  are  called  Epithets. 

By  the  judicious  employment  of  epithets  we  may  bring  dis- 
tinctly to  view,  with  the  greatest  brevity,  an  object  with  its 
characteristic  features.  Their  abuse  is  a  common  fault  of  un- 
trained and  of  inferior  writers.  They  are  used  improperly : — 

1.  When  they  are  not  apposite.     As  they  belong  to  the  lan- 
guage of  the  emotions,  they  can  not  be  applied  to  ideas  that 
have  no  significance  or  value  for  the  imagination  and  feelings. 
What  is  trite  and  tame  can  not  receive  force  and  dignity  by 
being  presented  with  an  array  of  qualifying  words;  the  feeble- 
ness of  the  thought  is  thereby  made  the  more  apparent,  and  the 
style  is  tawdry  and  frigid. 

2.  When  they  are  unmeaning.     Epithets  are  unmeaning 
when  they  do  not  give  greater  fullness  or  vividness  to  the 
thought.     They  should  condense  a  judgment,  an  argument,  or 
an  image.     Faulty  in  this  respect  are  such  as  signify  a  quality 
already  sufficiently  indicated  by  the  noun  itself;  as,  frozen  ice, 
white  snow,  and  the  like.     In  the  early  periods  of  literature 


Sec.  60  FIGURES  OF  SPEECH.  Ho 

such  epithets  were  not  offensive,  but  at  present  they  are  objec- 
tionable in  poetry  and  unendurable  in  prose. 

Another  class  of  unmeaning  epithets  are  such  as  suggest  no 
distinct  quality,  but  are  altogether  indefinite,  and  are  applied 
indiscriminately  to  the  most  heterogeneous  objects.  As  in- 
stances of  this  class,  may  be  mentioned  the  words,  fair,  sweet, 
goodly. 

Stereotyped  epithets,  such  as  have  become  hackneyed  by 
long  use,  belong  to  this  class.  They  no  longer  recall  an  image, 
and  nothing  is  gained  by  their  use.  They  indicate  that  the 
writer  has  no  vivid  impression  of  the  object,  and  has  not  ob- 
served it  for  himself;  but  is  narrating  or  describing  by  rote. 

3.  When  they  are  too  frequent.  The  redundant  employ- 
ment of  epithets  is  a  great  and  offensive  fault.  It  springs  from 
indolence,  a  want  of  clear  and  distinct  thought,  or  of  a  proper 
appreciation  of  the  relative  importance  of  the  several  notions, 
and  is  the  cause  of  a  frigid,  effeminate  style.  We  disgust  our 
readers  by  forcing  upon  their  attention  whatever  we  deem  re- 
markable ;  if  we  wish  to  keep  their  attention,  we  must  leave  a 
great  deal  to  the  activity  of  their  minds.  By  attempting  to 
give  equal  prominence  to  every  idea,  we  depress  all  ;  in  com- 
position, as  in  painting,  we  must  attend  to  the  distribution  of 
light  and  shade. 

Adverbs  are  also  used  as  epithets  to  qualify  verbs  and  adjec- 
tives ;  their  use  is  subject  to  the  rules  given  above. 

An  epithet  may  be  either  a  single  adjective  or  adverb,  or  a 
compound;  as,  a  way-side  violet,  heart-hardening  gold,  stiff- 
necked  pride.  Some  of  these  compound  epithets  are  among 
the  most  beautiful  in  the  language ;  they  are,  however,  more 
appropriate  to  poetry. 

Epithets  may  signify  either  natural  and  distinctive  qualities 
of  an  object  or  such  as  are  attributed  to  it  figuratively.  The 
principal  sources  are  given  in  the  following  epitome  taken  from 
flermyn's  Book  of  English  Epithets  : 

Kpitlu-ts  arc  cither  literal  or  figurative. 

I.  Literal — expressive  of  any  quality  eminently  characteristic  of  a  sub- 
ject. They  are  either  positive  or  negative. 


H6  STYLE.  Sec.  60 

II.  Figurative — 

1.  By  metaphor.     Epithets  are  ascribed — 

(1)  From  one  subject  to  another  resembling;  as,  billowy  cloud. 
(•2)  From  a  human  being  to  an  inferior  animal,  and  vice  versa;  as, 
laughing  hyena,  barking  cynic. 

(3)  From  an  inanimate  thing  to  a  human  being;  as,  senseless  miser. 

(4)  From  matter  to  an  operation  of  mind  ;  as,  brilliant  thought. 

(5)  From  an  object  of  one  sense  to  that  of  another ;   as,  delicious 
music. 

2.  By  metonymy,  etc.;  attributing  a  quality  proper  to  one  subject  to 
another  subject  having  external  relation,  etc. 

(1)  Of  a  cause  to  an  effect,  and  of  an  effect  to  a  cause;  as,  benevo- 
lent smile,  smiling  happiness. 

(2)  Of  a  subject  to  a  member  or  part ;  as,  studious  eye. 

(3)  Of  an  agent  to  an  instrument,  and  to  what  is  acted  upon;  as, 
blood-thirsty  ax,  skillful  harp. 

(4)  Of  a  part  of  the  body  to  an  act  of  the  mind  ;  as,  biting  envy. 

(5)  Of  the  contents  to  the  container ;  as,  flowing  bowl. 

3.  By  irony.     In  ridicule,  in  sarcasm,  or  in  paradox  ;  as,  magnanimous 
mouse,  darling  gold,  pleasing  pain. 

61.  Figures  of  Emphasis. — The  remaining  class  of  figures 
differs  from  the  preceding  in  not  giving  a  vivid  intuition  of  the 
object.     Their  force  consists  in  giving  prominence  and  empha- 
sis to  the  logically  important  thoughts.     They   are  not  ad- 
dressed to  the  imagination,  present  no  picture ;  but  direct  the 
attention  to  the  thought,  and  convey  at  the  same  time  the  feel- 
ings which  it  has  excited  in  the  writer's  mind.     Hence  they 
are  called  Figures  of  Emphasis  and  Passion. 

They  are  Interrogation,  Repetition,  Exclamation,  Hyper- 
bole, Irony,  Climax,  and  Antithesis. 

62.  Interrogation. — The  interrogation,  as  a  figure  of  speech, 
is  not  the  expression  of  a  desire  to  have  doubt  and  ignorance 
removed ;  it  is  an  indirect  but  vehement  assertion  of  strong 
conviction ;  we  affirm  by  a  negative  question,  and  deny  by  an 
affirmative ;  as, — 

''Can  not  God  create  another  world  many  times  more  fair,  and  cast 
over  it  a  mantle  of  light  many  times  more  lovely?  Can  he  not  shut  up 
winter  in  his  hoary  caverns,  or  send  him  howling  over  another  domain  ?" 


Sec.  62  FIGURES  OF  SPEECH.  117 

"  Is  not  a  patron  one  who  looks  with  unconcern  on  a  man  struggling 
for  life  in  the  water,  and  when  he  has  readied  the  ground  encumbers  him 
with  help?"  "Can  any  thing  be  newer  than  that  a  man  from  Macedonia 
should  subjugate  Greece?" 

This  figure  owes  its  force  to  the  fact  that  it  compels  the 
reader  to  give  the  answer  to  the  interrogation,  and  thus  calls 
his  powers  into  action ;  and  also,  that  it  combines  with  the 
assertion  of  the  truth  of  the  statement  a  challenge  to  deny  it. 
It  is  a  condensed  mode  of  asserting,  that  what  we  say  is  true 
and  can  not  be  contradicted.  It  is  employed  properly  in  ani- 
mated reasoning  5  it  is  an  abuse  of  it  to  employ  it  in  cool,  dis- 
passionate discourse ;  there  Ave  seek  clear  explications  and  co- 
gent arguments,  and  to  supplant  them  by  interrogations  gives 
to  the  discourse  an  air  of  flippancy.  Even  in  impassioned 
discourse  it  should  be  used  with  moderation;  readers  become 
disgusted  when  continually  defied  to  deny  what  is  said.  It 
occurs  most  frequently  in  the  writings  of  loose  thinkers,  who 
make  sweeping  assertions,  but  spare  themselves  the  labor  of 
explaining  and  proving. 

Repetition. — Repetition  may  be  either  of  single  words  and 
phrases,  in  the  same  sentence  or  in  successive  sentences,  or  of 
entire  clauses  and  sentences.  It  is  natural  to  the  language  of 
passion,  and  occurs  frequently  in  ordinary  discourse. 

Ex. — "You,  sir,  who  delight  to  utter  execrations  against  the  American 
commissioners  of  1778,  on  account  of  their  hostility  to  America ; — you, 
sir,  who  manufacture  stage-thunder  against  Mr.  Eden  for  his  anti-Ameri- 
can principles ; — you,  sir,  whom  it  pleases  to  chant  a  hymn  to  the  immor- 
tal Hampden ; — you,  sir,  approved  of  the  tyranny  exercised  against 
America ;  and  you,  sir,  voted  four  thousand  Irish  troops  to  cut  the  throats 
of  the  Americans,  fighting  for  their  freedom,  fighting  for  your  freedom, 
fighting  for  the  great  principle,  liberty."  Gratlan. 

Exclamation, — Exclamation  is  the  expression  of  emotion, 
whether  pleasant  or  painful.  When  the  emotion  is  sincere, 
this  figure  gives  liveliness  to  the  style ;  but  when  feeling  is 
wanting,  it  renders  the  style  frigid.  Like  an  expression  of 


118  STYLE.  Sec.  62 

passionate  feeling,  it  should  not  occur  too  frequently,  and  should 
be  brief. 

Ex. — "Oh  the  depth  of  the  riches  both  of  the  wisdom  and  knowledge 
of  God!"  "How  is  the  gold  become  dim!  how  is  the  most  fine  gold 
changed!"  "Oh  what  a  revolution!  and  what  a  heart  must  I  have  to 
contemplate  without  emotion  that  elevation  and  that  fall!" 

63.  Hyperbole. — Hyperbole  consists  in  magnifying  an  object 
beyond  the  bounds  of  what  is  actual  or  even  possible.  It  is  the 
natural  expression  of  strong  passion  and  emotion,  and  occurs 
more  frequently  in  poetry  than  in  prose. 

The  rules  for  its  use  in  serious  prose  are : 

1.  The  objects  must  be  great  and  unusual,  capable  of  produc- 
ing extraordinary  effects.     Its  use  with  common,  trivial  objects 
is  unnatural.     It  betrays  feebleness  to  be  greatly  excited  by 
common,  insignificant  objects  and  events. 

2.  It  should  be  brief  and  be  used  sparingly.     The  long  con- 
tinuance and  frequent  repetition  of  such  violent  effects  are 
exhausting. 

3.  It  should  not  be  introduced  unless  the  imagination  and 
feelings  of  the  readers  are  prepared  to  admit  it. 

4.  It  should  be  new :  the  stereotyped  exaggerations  of  ordi- 
nary conversation  impart  neither  surprise  nor  pleasure. 

The  hyperbole  resembles  the  synecdoche,  as  it  frequently 
gives,  instead  of  the  particular  idea  to  be  presented,  a  higher 
notion  of  the  same  class.  The  form  of  synecdoche  which  con- 
sists in  giving  an  abstract  quality  of  an  object  for  the  object 
itself,  has  the  force  of  a  hyperbole ;  as,  "He  is  goodness  itself," 
"  The  hope  of  the  family." 

Hyperboles  are  of  more  frequent  occurrence  wThen  a  comic 
effect  is  intended ;  as,  u  The  English  gain  two  hours  a  day  by 
clipping  words." 

The  converse  of  the  hyperbole  is  called  Litotes,  which  gives 
emphasis  to  a  notion  by  employing  terms  that  convey  less  than 
the  truth;  as,  "Show  thyself  a  man"  (exhibit  the  noblest 
qualities  of  manhood).  A  common  form  of  this  figure  is  the 
denial  of  the  opposite  notion  instead  of  a  direct  assertion. 


Sec.  64  FIGURES  OF  SPEECH.  1  19 

Ex.  —  "And  thou,  Bethlehem  in  the  land  of  Juda,  art  not  the  leant. 
the  princes  of  Juda"  (one  of  the  greatest).  "An  enemy  not  to  be 
"  (to  be  feared).  "A  work  he  need  not  be  ashamed  of"  (proud  of). 


Irony.  —  Irony  is  a  figure  in  which  the  literal  import  of  the 
words  is  the  contrary  of  what  is  meant  to  be  expressed.  The 
writer  seems  to  praise  what  is  base  and  foolish,  and  in  doing1  so 
sets  forth  the  contrast  between  the  real  character  of  the  object 
and  what  is  said  of  it.  When  skillfully  employed  it  has  great 
force,  and  has  the  additional  advantage  of  not  affording  any 
handle  to  an  opponent.  It  has  the  disadvantage  of  being  very 
liable  to  be  misunderstood  :  in  oral  discourse  the  meaning  may 
be  suggested  by  the  manner  of  speaking  ;  in  written  discourse, 
in  which  this  aid  is  wanting,  great  care  is  requisite  to  make  it 
apparent  that  the  opposite  of  what  is  said  is  intended.  An- 
other disadvantage  is,  that  it  is  personal,  and  exhibits  those 
against  whom  it  is  directed  in  a  ridiculous  light.  As  it  thus 
serves  chiefly  to  expose  and  humiliate,  it  must  be  used  with 
great  moderation  and  discretion  ;  when  it  fails  of  its  purpose, 
it  almost  invariably  creates  a  prejudice  against  the  one  who 
employs  it. 

64.  Climax,  —  Climax  is  the  arrangement  of  the  several  no- 
tions or  thoughts  of  a  sentence  in  a  graduated  series,  according  to 
their  relative  importance.  Each  member  of  the  series  makes  a 
stronger  impression  than  the  member  immediately  preceding  it. 
By  this  means  the  attention  is  excited,  and  the  main  thought 
is  exhibited  in  the  clearest  light.  That  the  climax  may  ac- 
complish its  purpose,  the  gradation  of  thought  must  be  real  arid 
easily  recognized,  and  the  progress  from  the  lower  to  the  higher 
must  be  continuous.  When  it  becomes  artificial,  its  effective- 
ness is  destroyed. 

The  inversion  of  this  order  is  called  Anticlimax  ;  it  is  allow- 
able in  comic  writings,  but  is  a  fault  in  serious  discourse. 

Ex.  —  "  It  is  an  outrnge  to  bind  a  Roman  citizen  ;  to  scourge  him  is  an 
atrocious  crime;  to  put  him  to  death  is  almost  parricide;  but  to  crucify 
him  —  what  shall  I  call  it?" 


120  STYLE.  Sec.  65 

65.  Antithesis. — As  in  climax  the  importance  of  a  thought 
is  exhibited  by  connecting  it  with  its  inferiors,  so  in  antithesis 
a  notion  is  illustrated  by  being  brought  into  comparison  with 
its  opposite.  Opposites  when  brought  together  reflect  light 
upon  each  other.  The  notion  is  determined  more  precisely; 
the  particular  characteristics  or  marks  to  which  the  attention  is 
directed  are  brought  out  more  vividly.  When  the  opposition 
of  thought  is  made  apparent  by  the  structure  of  the  sentence, 
it  is  called  Antithesis. 

It  is  a  brilliant  and  dangerous  figure.  There  must  always 
be  a  real  opposition  of  thought ;  merely  verbal  antithesis,  in 
which  there  is  an  opposition  in  language  without  any  in 
thought,  is  always  offensive.  It  is  not  suited  to  the  expression 
of  strong  passion,  and  is  better  fitted  for  lighter  kinds  of  com- 
position. It  may,  however,  be  employed  occasionally  with 
effect  in  the  higher  forms  of  prose.  The  frequent  recurrence  of 
it  gives  to  a  discourse  the  appearance  of  artifice  and  affecta- 
tion. 

Ex. — "Like  the  sun,  it  (the  understanding)  had  both  light  and  agility; 
it  knew  no  rest,  but  in  motion  ;  no  quiet,  but  in  activity.  It  did  not  so 
properly  apprehend,  as  irradiate  the  object;  not  so  much  find,  as  make 
things  intelligible."  South. 

."When  an  author  is  yet  living,  we  estimate  his  powers  by  his  worst 
performance ;  and  when  he  is  dead,  we  rate  them  by  Ids  best." 

"My  strength  hath  been  my  ruin,  and  my  fall  my  stay." 

"  Whosoever  will  save  his  life  shall  lose  it ;  and  whosoever  will  lose  his 
life  for  my  sake  shall  find  it." 

"  Never,  never  more  shall  we  behold  that  generous  loyalty  to  rank  and 
sex,  that  proud  submission,  that  digmfcd  obedience,  that  subordination  of 
the  heart,  which  kept  alive  even  in  servitude  itself  the  spirit  of  an  eratted 
freedom." 


Sec.  66  THE  SENTENCE.  121 

CHAPTER   IY. 

THE   SENTENCE. 

66.  In  the  preceding  chapters,  words  have  been  considered 
simply  as  the  signs  of  separate  notions ;  we  have  now  to  con- 
sider them  as  combined  to  form  sentences. 

Sentence  defined. — A  sentence  is  a  combination  of  words 
expressing  a  single,  complete  thought.  To  constitute  a  sen- 
tence there  are  required  (1)  two  notions — the  one,  that  which 
is  determined  and  qualified,  called  the  Subject — the  other,  that 
which  determines  and  qualifies,  called  the  Predicate ;  and  (2) 
the  Copula,  which  affirms  or  denies  the  relation  between  the 
subject  and  predicate. 

Division  of  Sentences. — Sentences  are  divided  according  to 
various  principles.  The  classes  to  which  reference  is  most  fre- 
quently made  in  rhetoric  and  criticism  are  the  following : 

1.  Intellective  and  Volitive. — Intellective  sentences  include 
propositions,  which  enunciate  a  judgment  either  categorically 
or  conditionally,  and  interrogative  sentences,   which  are  the 
expressions  of  ignorance  or  doubt.     Volitive  sentences  include 
such  as  express  an  emotion  with  its  exciting  cause,  desire  and 
aversion  with  their  objects,  or  an  act  of  the  will. 

2.  Simple  and  Confound. — A  simple  sentence  is  the  ex- 
plicit assertion  of  a  single  main  thought  without  any  coordinate 
or  subordinate  sentences.     It  contains  but  a  single  subject  and 
predicate,  both  of  which  may  be  expanded  by  the  addition  of 
qualifying  words.     A  compound  sentence  consists  of  two  or 
more  simple  sentences  so  combined  as  to  express  a  single  judg- 
ment.    It  is  of  two  forms ;  there  may  be  one  principal  sentence 
with  other  sentences  subordinate  to  it,  or  the  sentences  may  be 
coordinate. 

.">.  Loose  Sentence  and  Period. — In  a  loose  sentence  the 
parts  are  so  connected  that  the  construction  will  yield  a  com- 

Rhef.  11 


122  STYLE.  Sec.  66 

pleie  sense  at  some  point  before  the  close.  Thus,  in  the  fol- 
lowing example,  there  are  several  points  where  the  reader  may 
pause  and  have  a  complete  thought : 

"  The  only  light  of  every  truth  is  its  corresponding  error ;  |  and,  there- 
fore, in  the  contemplation  and  exhibition  of  truth,  a  philosopher  should 
take  especial  care  not  to  keep  himself  too  loftily  aloof  from  the  contempla- 
tion and  exhibition  of  error,  |  as  these  proud  spirits,  Plato,  Spinoza,  Leib- 
nitz, and  Hegel  most  undoubtedly  did,  |  much  to  the  detriment  of  their 
own  profound  disquisitions,  |  and  to  the  loss  of  mankind,  |  who,  had  their 
method  been  different,  might  have  profited  more  largely  by  their  wisdom.'7 

The  parts  of  a  loose  sentence  are  not  entirely  independent  of 
each  other;  if  they  were,  we  should  have  a  series  of  distinct 
sentences.  From  the  example  it  will  be  seen  that  while  the 
words  preceding  a  stop  form  a  sentence  grammatically  perfect, 
those  that  follow  do  not,  but  depend  on  what  goes  before. 

A  period  is  a  complex  sentence  the  members  of  which  are  so 
reciprocally  dependent  that  no  one  of  them  by  itself  gives  a 
complete  sense ;  they  remain  suspended  in  the  mind  until  the 
whole  is  finished,  when  the  meaning  is  flashed  back  from  the 
conclusion  to  the  commencement. 

Ex. — "As  for  Jonson,  to  whose  character  I  am  now  arrived,  if  we  look 
upon  him  while  he  was  himself  (for  his  last  plays  were  but  his  dotages), 
I  think  him  the  most  learned  and  judicious  writer  which  any  theater  ever 
had." 

"  If  grammar  is  learned  by  speaking  and  writing ;  if  a  man  can  not 
become  an  orator  without  repeated  efforts  to  speak  in  public,  nor  a  poet 
without  practicing  the  mechanism  of  verse  till  he  can  use  it  with  ease,  it 
seems  absurd  to  expect  that  a  course  of  lectures  heard,  with  a  string  of 
definitions  learned,  will  make  a  logician." 

67.  Characteristics  of  the  English  Sentence. — Every  lan- 
guage has  its  peculiar  laws  and  forms  for  the  collocation  of 
words ;  the  sum  of  these  syntactical  forms  and  usages  consti- 
tutes what  is  called  the  idiom  of  the  lansruasre. 

O         o 

The  peculiarities  of  the  sentence  grow  out  of  the  general 
character  of  the  language.  The  most  important  division  of 
languages,  so  far  as  rhetoric  is  concerned,  is  into  inflected  and 


Sec,  67  THE  SENTENCE.  123 

miiiiflected.  In  inflected  languages  the  relations  of  the  words 
to  each  other  in  the  sentence  are  indicated  by  modifications  of 
their  form — by  terminal  syllables,  which  once  had  a  signifi- 
cance, but  have  lost  it,  and  serve  merely  to  denote  the  relations 
of  number,  case,  person,  mode,  tense,  etc.  Uninflected  lan- 
guages iir«  not  provided  with  a  complete  set  of  inflections,  and 
the  relations  of  words  in  the  sentence  are  indicated  by  their 
position  and  by  means  of  particles. 

The  ancient  languages  were  inflected.  The  tendency  of  the 
modern  is  to  discard  more  and  more  the  inflections  they  still 
retain.  From  the  circumstances  of  its  history,  this  tendency 
has  been  carried  further  in  the  English  than  in  any  other  Eu- 
ropean language.  The  Anglo-Saxon  had  a  tolerably  complete 
system  of  inflections,  but  the  revolutions  through  which  our 
tongue  has  passed  have  deprived  it  of  most  of  them.  As  con- 
sequences of  this  loss  we  find  that  our  language  has  a  large 
body  of  particles,  which  are  indispensable  to  the  construction 
of  sentences  of  any  length  5  that  there  is  a  prescribed  order  of 
arranging  words  in  a  sentence ;  and  that  this  order  is  what  is 
called  the  grammatical, — the  nominative  precedes  the  verb,  the 
article  and  adjective  precede  the  nominative,  the  objective  fol- 
lows the  verb. 

As  some  of  the  peculiarities  of  the  English  sentence,  may  be 
mentioned : 

1.  In  order  to  understand  a  sentence,  we  are  compelled  to 
look  not  to  the  form  of  the  words  but  to  their  meaning.     The 
relation  of  the  words  is  determined  by  the  relation  of  the 
thoughts.     The  logical  analysis  of  the  sentence  thus  precedes 
the  grammatical.     While  in  the  classical  languages  the  atten- 
tion is  directed  mainly  to  the  terminal  syllables  in  order  to  dis- 
cover the  relation  of  the  words,  in  English  it  is  directed  to 
discovering  the  ideas  which  they  signify.     It  is  on  this  account 
that,  as  Marsh  tl links,  "  the  construction  and  comprehension  of 
an  English  sentence  demand  and  suppose  the  exercise  of  higher 
mental  powers  than  are  required  for  the  framing  or  understand- 
ing of  a  proposition  in  Latin." 

2.  There  is  a  greater  liability  in  long  sentences  to  equivoca- 


124:  STYLE.  Sec.  67 

tion.     It  is  difficult  to  frame  a  long  sentence  in  English  winch 
is  not  at  least  grammatically  ambiguous. 

3.  The  relations  which  are  expressed  in  the  inflected  lan- 
guages by  the  form  of  the  words,  are  expressed  in  English  by 
particles,  which  are  syllables  with  no  meaning  of  their  own. 
They  increase  the  number  of  words  necessary  to  convey  a 
thought,  and  often  encumber  the  sentence  and  destroy  its  force 
and  harmony.     We  are  also  often  compelled  to  resort  to  awk- 
ward compound  expressions. 

4.  Inversion  is  admissible  only  to  a  limited  extent,  and  there 
is  consequently  often  a  want  of  harmony  between  the  order  of 
the  words  and  the  natural  order  of  thought.     We  are  often  not 
able  to  give  to  the  emphatic  word  the  emphatic  place. 

5.  The  periodic  structure  is  not  adapted  to  the  language, 
owing  to  the  absence  of  the  aids  to  attention  given  by  inflec- 
tional endings,  and  to  the  limited  extent  to  which  inversions 
and  transpositions  are  possible. 

6.  There  is  a  greater  liability  to  a  uniform,  monotonous 
structure. 

7.  The  language  presents  fewer  difficulties ;   the  range  of 
errors  in  syntax  is  a  contracted  one.     But  this  less  liability  to 
error  leads  to  carelessness :  among  English  writers,  more  than 
among  those  of  any  other  modern  nation,  there  prevails  gross 
negligence  of  the  laws  of  syntax.     The  peculiarity  of  the  Eng- 
lish sentence  already  mentioned,  that  the  attention  is  fixed 
chiefly  upon  the  ideas  and  the  words  representing  them,  seems 
to  confirm  the  tendency  to  disregard  the  few  syntactical  laws 
which,  our  language  yet  retains. 

68,  The  Structure  of  Sentences. — The  mental  processes  in- 
volved in  combining  notions  into  thoughts  expressed  in  sen- 
tences, are  identical  in  nature  with  those  employed  in  building 
up  thoughts  into  paragraphs  and  connected  discourses.  In  the 
construction  of  sentences,  then,  the  general  laws  of  thought  and 
style  appear  in  their  most  elementary  form. 

The  qualities  essential  to  a  perfect  sentence  are,  Correctness, 
Unity,  Clearness,  Precision,  Energy,  Melody. 


Sec.  69  THE  SENTENCE.  125 

69.  Correctness. — The  most  elementary  rule  for  the  struct- 
ure of  sentences  is  that  the  collocation  of  words  shall  conform 
to  the  laws  of  syntax.  Grammatical  correctness  is  the  neces- 
sary condition  of  the  other  graces  of  expression,  and  although 
in  itself  not  a  great  virtue,  the  want  of  it  is  a  great  fault. 

Violations  of  grammatical  propriety  are  frequent  even  among 
the  best  English  writers.  The  simplicity  of  the  structure  of 
the  language  is  one  occasion  of  this  5  a  writer  can  make  him- 
self understood  with  but  little  labor,  and  at  the  same  time  the 
fewness  of  forms  tends  to  produce  carelessness  in  using  them. 

The  enumeration  and  classification  of  the  violations  of  cor- 
rectness are  given  in  the  grammars  under  the  head  of  syntax. 
Only  a  few  of  the  most  frequent  need  be  mentioned,  to  call 
attention  to  the  points  in  which  writers  are  most  liable  to 
error. 

1.  Many  mistakes  occur  in  the  use  of  pronouns.     Especial 
caution  is  needed  in  employing  the  pronoun  it.     u  Xever,"  says 
Cobbett,  "put  an  it  upon  paper  without  thinking  well  what 
you  are  about.     When  I  see  many  its  in  a  page,  I  always 
tremble  for  the  writer."     The  relative  pronouns  are  also  very 
often  used  improperly. 

Ex. — "Let  me  see,  who  do  I  know  among  them. w  "Precision  imports 
pruning  the  expression  so  as  to  exhibit  neither  more  nor  less  than  an  exact 
copy  of  his  idea  who  uses  it."  "  It  is  me."  "  Robert  is  there,  the  very 
outcome  of  him,  and  indeed  of  many  generations  of  such  as  him.11  "  He 
thus  succeeded  in  at  last  combating  the  revolution  with  its  own  weapons, 
and  at  the  same  time  detaching  from  them  the  moral  weakness  under 
which  it  labored.  He  met  it  with  its  own  forces ;  but  he  rested  their 
efforts  on  a  nobler  principle." 

2.  Mistakes  in  the  use  of  verbs  are  of  various  kinds,  as  in  the 
indiscriminate  use  of  singulars  and  plurals,  confounding  preter- 
ites with  past  participles,  employing  the  strong  conjugation  for 

-the  weak,  or  the  weak  for  the  strong,  the  omission  of  a  part  of 
a  compound  tense,  the  use  of  the  wrong  auxiliary,  etc. 

Ex. — "  The  poetry  and  eloquence  of  the  Augustan  age  was  assiduously 
cultivated  in  Mercian  and  Northumbrian  monasteries."  "  It  was  one  of 


12G  STYLE.  Sec,  69 

the  most  important  alliances  that  ever  uvrs  formed."  "  The  use  of  fraud 
and  perfidy,  of  cruelty  and  injustice,  were  often  subservient  to  the  propa- 
gation of  the  faith." 

"At  present  trade  is  thought  to  be  in  a  depressed  state  if  less  than  a 
million  of  tons  are  produced  in  a  year." 

"  He  bowls  along  with  ease  in  a  vehicle  which  a  few  centuries  ago 
would  have  beeti  broken  to  pieces  in  a  deep  rut,  or  come  to  grief  in  a  bot- 
tomless swamp." 

"  I  shall  do  all  I  can  to  persuade  others  to  take  the  same  measures  for 
their  cure  which  I  have." 

3.  Other  inaccuracies  are  found  in  the  use  of  the  degrees  of 
comparison ;  as,  u  That  style  of  warfare  is,  of  all  others,  the 
most  barbarous"; — in  the  use  of  than;  as,  "To  reconstruct 
such  a  work  in  another  language  were  business  for  a  man  of 
different  powers  than  has  yet  attempted  German  translation 
among  us." 

REMARK. — The  student  will  find  a  more  complete  enumeration  of 
prevalent  offenses  against  correctness  in  Breen's  Modern  English  Litera- 
ture, from  which  most  of  the  examples  given  above  have  been  taken. 

The  law  of  correctness  must  not  be  pressed  so  far  as  to  ex- 
clude forms  of  expression  which,  though  sanctioned  by  usage, 
are  deviations  from  the  syntax  of  the  language.  These  depart- 
ures from  strict  grammatical  law  abound  in  every  language, 
and  are  called  Idiotisms.  Frequently,  also,  we  find  a  thought 
expressed  in  a  condensed,  energetic  form  that  will  not  stand 
the  test  of  grammatical  analysis ;  as,  "  Truth,  like  a  torch,  the 
more  it's  shook  it  shines."  To  reduce  such  expressions  to 
grammatical  correctness  would  destroy  their  force. 

70.  Unity. — A  sentence  has  unity  when  it  is  the  expression 
of  one  leading  thought,  and  all  the  particulars  contained  in  it 
are  exhibited  in  their  relation  to  this  main  thought  and  to  each 
other. 

This  is  an  essential  quality  of  a  sentence.  However  long 
and  complex  it  may  be,  it  must  set  forth  but  one  main  thought, 
to  which  all  the  notions  and  judgments  are  subordinate. 


Sec,  70  THE  SENTENCE.  127 

Unity  is  violated: — 

1.  By  bringing  into  grammatical  connection  thoughts  which 
have  no  real  nor  logical  connection.     Such  heterogeneous  mat- 
ter can  not  be  reduced  to  the  unity  of  a  single  judgment,  and 
should  therefore  be  expressed  in  separate  sentences. 

Ex. — "His  own  notions  were  always  good;  but  he  was  a  man  of  great 
expense." 

"Archbishop  Tillotson  died  this  year.  He  was  exceedingly  beloved 
both  by  King  William  and  Queen  Mary,  who  nominated  Dr.  Tennisotij 
Uitshop  of  Lincoln,  to  succeed  him." 

"  In  this  uneasy  state  both  of  his  public  and  private  life,  Cicero  was 
oppressed  by  a  new  and  cruel  affliction,  the  death  of  his  beloved  Tullia, 
which  happened  soon  after  her  divorce  from  Dolabella,  whose  manners  and 
humors  u'ere  entirely  disagreable  to  her." 

The  artificial  union  of  incongruous  or  repugnant  ideas  may 
be  considered  as  a  violation  of  this  rule.  It  is  admissible  for 
comic  effect,  but  ought  to  be  avoided  in  serious  composition. 

Ex. — "  On  every  side  they  rose  in  multitudes,  armed  with  rustic  weapons 
and  with  irresistible  fury"  " Separated  by  mountains  and  by  mutual 
fear" 

"  To  one  so  gifted  with  the  prodigality  of  Heaven,  can  we  approach  in 
any  other  attitude  than  of  prostration  ?" 

"Of  the  nineteen  tyrants  who  started  up  under  the  reign  of  Gallienus, 
there  was  not  one  who  enjoyed  a  life  of  peace  or  a  natural  death." 

2.  By  what  is  called  shifting  the  scene  of  a  sentence.     The 
rule  laid  down  by  Kames,  and  repeated  by  all  writers  upon 
Rhetoric  who  have  followed  him,  is  liable  to  be  misunderstood: 
"  During  the  course  of  a  period  the  scene  ought  to  be  continued 
without  variation ;  the  changing  from  person  to  person,  from 
subject  to  subject,  or  from  person  to  subject,  within  the  bounds 
of  a  single  period,  distracts  the  mind,  and  affords  no  time  for  a 
solid  impression."     This  must  not  be  interpreted  as  meaning 
that  the  same  subject  must  be  retained  throughout  an  entire 
sentence.     The  fault  intended  to  be  pointed  out  is  that  of  con- 
necting with  a  main  proposition  a  series  of  accessory  proposi- 
tions, in  which  the  succeeding  one  is  subordinated  to  the  one 


128  STYLE.  Sec.  70 

that  immediately  precedes  it.  This  structure  violates  the  unity 
of  the  sentence.  There  is  no  compact  statement  of  a  distinct 
thought,  but  a  rapid  enumeration  of  particulars,  a  constant 
transition  from  a  higher  to  a  subordinate  thought.  The  end  of 
such  a  process  must  be  entirely  arbitrary  5  and  in  many  cases 
no  connection  can  be  discovered  between  the  thought  with 
which  the  sentence  begins  and  that  with  which  it  closes. 

Ex. — "  After  we  came  to  anchor,  they  put  me  ashore,  where  I  was  wel- 
comed by  all  my  friends,  who  received  me  witli  the  greatest  kindness." 

"  After  a  short  time  he  came  to  himself;  and  the  next  day  they  put  him 
on  board  his  ship,  which  conveyed  him  first  to  Corinth.7' 

"  To  the  memory  of  Lord  George  Bentinck,  second  surviving  son  of 
Wiiriam  Henry  Cavendish  Scott,  whose  ardent  patriotism  and  uncompro- 
mising honesty  were  only  equaled  by  the  persevering  zeal  and  extraor- 
dinary talents,  which  called  forth  the  grateful  homage  of  those  who,  in 
erecting  this  memorial,  pay  a  heartfelt  tribute  to  exertions  which  prema- 
turely brought  to  the  grave  one  who  might  long  have  lived  the  pride  of  his 
native  country." 

3.  By  attaching  to  a  sentence  already  complete,  a  clause 
which  ought  to  have  been  inserted  in  the  body  of  the  sentence. 
Such  appendages,  presenting  themselves  to  the  reader  when  he 
supposes  that  the  sentence  is  already  finished,  invariably  pro- 
duce a  disagreeable  effect.  He  is  compelled  to  take  to  pieces 
the  thought  which  he  has  built  up,  and  to  incorporate  into  it 
the  new  elements  given  in  the  supplementary  clause,  and  in 
doing  so  he  often  finds  that  the  sentence  obtains  an  entirely 
different  meaning.  Where  the  waste  of  attention  is  not  so 
great,  there  is  still  a  violation  of  unity  by  putting  a  merely  ac- 
cessory circumstance  in  an  emphatic  position,  thus  destroying 
the  distinction  between  the  main  and  subordinate  members  of 
the  sentence. 

Ex. — "  The  French  idea  of  liberty  is  the  right  of  every  man  to  be  mas- 
ter of  the  rest ;  in  practice  at  least,  if  not  in  theory." 

In  this  sentence,  the  subordinate  clause,  beginning  with  "  in  practice," 
is  an  essential  but  subordinate  part  of  the  statement,  and  should  be  placed 
wh.  're  it  will  contribute  to  build  up  the  entire  thought ;  thus,  "  Whatever 
it  may  be  in  theory,  it  is  clear  that  in  practice  the  French  idea  of  liberty 
is.  tv  e  right  of  every  man  to  be  master  of  the  rest." 


Sec.  70  THE  SENTENCE.  129 

4.  By  the  improper  use  of  parentheses.  Parentheses  are 
words  and  clauses  which  have  no  grammatical  connection  with 
any  members  of  the  sentence,  and  may  be  omitted  without 
affecting  its  meaning.  Their  use  is  sometimes  unavoidable; 
they  often  give  emphasis  to  a  word  or  clause,  contain  an  ex- 
planation, or  suggest  important  relations  of  a  thought  which 
however  do  not  enter  into  its  development.  But  great  caution 
is  needed  in  using  them.  They  are  not  organic  parts  of  the 
sentence,  and  are  apt  to  withdraw  attention  from  the  main 
thought,  and  to  interrupt  its  harmonious  development.  Their 
frequent  use  is  an  indication  of  the  want  of  thorough  mastery 
of  the  idea  to  be  expressed.  Many  that  are  met  with  could  be 
rejected  as  useless,  and  others,  by  a  little  care,  could  be  worked 
into  the  fabric  of  the  sentence. 

Parenthetic  marks  should  not  be  inserted  where  there  is  no 
parenthesis;  as  in  these: 


"Any  two  circumstances  (not  naturally  connected)  are  more  rarely  to 
be  met  with." 

"  The  distribution  of  the  predicate  depends  (not  on  the  quantity,  but) 
on  the  quality  of  the  proposition." 

It  is  a  graver  abuse  to  make  them  a  means  towards  conceal- 
ing a  faulty  construction;  as  in  this  example: 

"Our  ancestors  founded  certain  great  schools  (that  now  rear  the 
nobles,  the  gentry,  and  the-  merchants)  for  the  benefit  of  the  poor." 

If  the  parenthetic  marks  are  removed,  the  statement  will  be, 
that  the  schools  rear  the  nobles,  the  gentry,  and  the  merchants 
for  the  benefit  of  the  poor. 

A  parenthesis  should  include  nothing  by  the  omission  of 
which  the  sense  of  the  proposition  is  left  incomplete ;  as  in  this 
example : 

"  In  Ben  Jonson's  *  Tale  of  a  Tub,'  one  (and  more  than  one  of  the 
characters)  speaks  thus." 


130  STYLE.  Sec.  70 

Parentheses  that  involve  grammatical  blunders,  or  contain 
other  parentheses  in  them,  or  are  composed  of  long  and  com- 
plex sentences,  should  be  avoided. 

Ex. — "  Hume's  Natural  Religion  called  forth  Dr.  Beattie's  (author  of 
the  Minstrel)  able  work." 

"  When  this  parliament  sat  down  (for  it  deserves  our  particular  obser- 
vation that  both  houses  were  full  of  zeal  for  the  present  government  and 
of  resentment  against  the  late  usurpation),  there  was  but  one  party  in 
parliament." 

71.  Clearness. — A  sentence  is  clear  when  it  expresses  the 
exact  thought  of  the  writer  and  is  understood  without  any  un- 
necessary effort. 

The  want  of  clearness  may  originate  either  in  the  thought  or 
in  the  expression.  A  confused  thinker  may  combine  contra- 
dictory notions  or  such  as  stand  in  no  perceivable  relation  to 
each  other,  and  thus  become  unintelligible.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  relations  between  thoughts  may  be  real  and  impor- 
tant, but  difficult  to  apprehend ;  in  this  case  the  difficulty  lies 
in  the  thought,  and  is  not  to  be  regarded  as  a  fault. 

We  are  concerned  here  with  violations  of  clearness  or  per- 
spicuity occasioned  by  the  improper  collocation  of  words.  Of 
these  there  are  several  forms : 

1.  The  sentence  may  convey  no  meaning. 

2.  The  sentence  may  convey  a  wrong  meaning.     The  words 
taken  in  their  grammatical  connection  suggest  a  different  sense 
from  that  which  the  writer  wishes  to  express.     He  says  one 
thing  while  meaning  another.     The  mistake  may  be  very  soon 
corrected^  the  suggested  meaning  may  at  once  be  seen  to  be 
absurd  or  not  suited  to  the  context.     But  as  comparison  and 
reflection  were  required  to  correct  the  error,  the  attention  is 
drawn  from  the  main  thought,  and  the  force  of  the  presentation 
is  weakened. 

3.  The  sentence  may  be  ambiguous;  that  is,  it  may  be  sus- 
ceptible of  two  or  more  interpretations,  and  may  leave  us  in 
doubt  which  is  to   be    preferred.     The  real  ambiguities  here 
spoken  of  must  be  distinguished  from  the  so-called  grammatical 


Sec.  71  THE  SENTENCE.  131 

ambiguities.  There  are  few  long  sentences  which  by  a  little 
ingenuity  can  not  be  made  to  yield  a  double  meaning.  A 
writer  is  not  expected  to  guard  against  such  latent  ambiguities. 
It  is  enough  that  the  sentence  be  so  framed  that  it  can  not  be 
misunderstood  by  a  candid  and  intelligent  reader. 

4.  The  sentence  may  want  simplicity.  It  is  not  sufficient 
that  we  can  at  last  discover  its  meaning  by  re-reading  it,  ana- 
lyzing it,  and  comparing  it  with  the  context  5  the  sense  should 
unfold  gradually  before  us,  and  be  exhibited  in  the  clearest 
light  as  soon  as  the  sentence  is  finished. 

The  most  frequent  occasions  of  the  want  of  clearness  are  the 
following : 

1.  The  unnatural  separation  of  related  words.     As  in  Eng- 
lish the  relation  of  words  is  indicated  by  their  position,  qualify- 
ing words  should  be  placed  as  near  as  practicable  to  the  words 
they  are  intended  to  qualify.      The  following  are  instances 
of  the  wrong  position  of  adjectives,  adverbs,  and  adverbial 
phrases : 

"God  heapeth  favors  on  his  servants  ever  liberal  and  faithful."  The 
construction  is  ambiguous,  as  the  adjectives  may  qualify  either  God  or 
servants. 

"The  salt  merchants,  the  grocers,  the  confectioners  conspired  together 
to  adulterate  the  articles  in  which  they  dealt  in  a  thousand  ways."  The 
adverbial  phrase,  "  iii  a  thousand  ways,"  should  be  joined  to  the  verb 
adulterate. 

"There  is  a  copy  in  the  British  Museum  ;  and  M.  Raynouard has  given 
a  short  account  of  one  that  he  had  seen  in  the  Journal  des  Sarans  for 
1826."  "  In  the  Journal,"  etc.,  qualifies  "  has  given." 

Wrong  position  of  cases : 

"  Do  they  call  virtue  there  forgetfulness?"  The  writer  intends  to  ask, 
Do  they  call  forgetfulness  virtue  ?  The  opposite  is  expressed.  "  The  ris- 
ing tomb  a  lofty  column  bore." 

2.  The   double  reference  of  a  phrase.     "A  circumstance 
ought  not  to  be  placed  between  two  capital  members  of  a 
period ;  for  by  such  a  situation  it  is  doubtful  to  which  of  -;he 


132  STYLE.  Sec,  71 

two  members  it  belongs.  In  general,  to  preserve  members 
distinct,  that  signify  things  distinguished  in  thought,  the  best 
method  is  to  place  first  in  the  consequent  member  some  word 
that  can  not  connect  with  what  precedes  it."  Kames. 

Ex. — "  Hence  lie  considered  marriage  with  a  modern  political  econo- 
mist as  very  dangerous,"  instead  of  "  Hence  he,  with  a  modern  political 
economist,"  etc. 

"  The  minister  who  grows  less  by  his  elevation,  like  a  little  statue  on  a 
mighty  pedestal,  will  always  have  his  jealousy  strong  about  him." 

"  When  I  hear  a  person  use  a  queer  expression,  or  pronounce  a  name 
in  reading  differently  from  It  is  neighbors,  it  always  goes  down  in  my  esti- 
mate of  him,  with  a  minus  sign  before  it." 

3.  The  improper  position  of  the  limitative  and  exceptive  par- 
ticles, such  as  only,  alone,  just,  merely,  at  least. 

u  Not  only  Jesuits  can  equivocate,"  means  others  besides  the 
Jesuits  can  equivocate.  "Jesuits  can  not  only  equivocate," 
means  Jesuits  can  equivocate  and  do  other  things  besides. 
The  force  of  the  particle  varies  with  its  position.  In  logical 
language,  when  it  is  annexed  to  the  subject  of  the  sentence,  it 
distributes  the  predicate  and  limits  it  to  the  subject  alone ;  as, 
Only  men,  or  men  alone,  are  philosophers  =  All  philosophers  are 
men.  Annexed  to  the  predicate,  it  limits  the  subject  to  the 
predicate,  without  quantifying  the  predicate  or  excluding  it  from 
other  subjects;  as,  "Jesuits  can  only  equivocate"— It  is  all  that 
they  can  do,  although  others  also  may  do  the  same.  The  fol- 
lowing examples  can  be  tested  and  corrected  by  this  rule : 

"One  species  of  bread,  of  coarse  quality,  was  only  allowed  to  be 

baked ;"  i.  e.,  allowed  and  nothing  more. 

"  Theism  can  only  be  opposed  to  polytheism  or  atheism." 

"  By  greatness,  I  do  not  only  mean  the  bulk  of  any  single  object,  but 

the  largeness  of  a  whole  view." 

4.  The  frequent  repetition  of  pronouns  in  a  sentence  in  which 
several  persons  or  things  are  spoken  of,  frequently  causes  am- 
biguity.    It  is  better,  in  such  cases,  to  change  the  construction 
or  repeat  the  noun. 


Sec.  71  THE  SENTENCE.  133 

Ex. — "Two  other  words  occur  to  me  which  are  very  commonly  man- 
gled by  our  clergy.  One  of  these  is  '  covetous  '  ami  its  substantive  covet- 
ousness.  I  hope  some  who  read  these  lines  will  be  induced  to  leave  off 
pronouncing  them  covetious  and  covetiousness.  I  can  assure  them  that 
when  they  do  thus  call  them  one  at  least  of  their  hearers  has  his  apprecia- 
tion of  their  teaching  disturbed." 

5.  The  uncertain  or  wrong  reference  of  pronouns,  both  de- 
monstrative and  relative. 


Ex. — "  No  one  as  yet  had  exhibited  the  structure  of  the  human  kidneys, 
Vesalius  having  only  examined  them  in  dogs."  Note  also  the  wrong  posi- 
tion of  only. 

"The  professor  soon  perceived,  however,  that  the  intellectual  qualities 
of  the  youth  were  superior  to  those  of  his  raiment." 

"It  is  folly  to  pretend  to  arm  ourselves  against  the  accidents  of  life  by 
heaping  up  treasures,  which  nothing  can  protect  us  against  but  the  good 
providence  of  God."  The  relative  should  be  placed  as  near  as  possible  to 
its  antecedent.  In  the  sentence  quoted  the  relative  refers  not  to  treas- 
ures, but  to  accidents. 

"A  verdict  was  obtained  against  him  (Wilkes)  for  No.  45  (of  The  North 
Briton),  as  well  as  for  a  piece  called  An  Essay  on  Woman,  an  obscene 
and  scurrilous  libel  in  parody  of  Pope's  Essay  on  Man,  in  which  Lord 
Sandwich  and  Bishop  Warburton  had  been  reflected  on  and  ridiculed." 
The  relative  refers  to  An  Essay  on  Woman,  and  not,  as  from  the  arrange- 
ment would  be  naturally  supposed,  to  Pope's  Essay  on  Man. 

"The  Earl  ofFalmouth  and  Mr.  Coventry  were  rivals  who  should  have 
most  influence  with  the  duke,  who  loved  the  earl  best,  but  thought  the 
other  the  wiser  man,  who  supported  Pen,  who  disobliged  all  the  courtiers, 
even  against  the  earl,  who  contemned  Pen  as  a  fellow  of  no  sense." 

"  By  the  pleasures  of  imagination  or  of  fancy  (which  I  shall  use  pro- 
miscuously), I  here  mean  such  as  arise  from  visible  objects."  The  real 
antecedent  is  not  expressed,  viz.,  words.  As  it  stands,  the  natural  refer- 
ence is  to  pleasures. 

"  I  know  that  all  words  which  are  signs  of  complex  ideas  furnish  mat- 
ter of  mistake  and  cavil."  The  ambiguity  of  this  sentence  arises  from  our 
not  knowing  whether  the  relative  clause  is  intended  to  limit  its  antece- 
dent, icorch,  or  simply  to  explain  it.  Is  it  meant  that  all  words  are  signs 
of  complex  ideas,  or  that  there  is  a  certain  class  significant  of  complex 
ideas?  In  the  former  case,  the  relative  is  explicative;  in  the  latter,  de- 
terminative. This  distinction  is  an  important  one,  and  should  be  borne  in 
mind. 

Observe  the  difference  in  these  sentences :  "  It  is  possible  to  express  a 


134:  STYLE.  Sec.  71 

general  truth  in  terms  that  shall  be  themselves  highly  concrete."  The 
relative  is  determinative  (in  highly  concrete  terms). 

"  Subordinate  clauses,  which  must  not  by  their  length  overwhelm  the 
principal  clause."  Kelative  is  explicative  (and  they  must  not,  etc.) 

"  The  court  opposed,  which  was  anticipated."  "  In  narration,  Homer 
is  at  all  times  concise,  which  renders  him  lively  and  agreeable."  The 
relative  should  not,  as  in  the  last  two  examples,  have  a  sentence  as  it& 
antecedent. 

6.  The  equivocal  signification  of  many  of  the  conjunctions. 
The  conjunction  or  particularly  is  equivocal.     It  may  mean 
either,  that  the  two  notions  are  identical;  as  when  I  say,  no- 
tion or  concept,  rhetoric  or  the  theory  of  prose :  or  that  they 
are  different ;  as,  logic  or  rhetoric,  history  or  philosophy. 

7.  The  improper  omission  of  words.     Ellipsis  may  be  earned 
too  far  and  words  be  omitted  so  as  to  alter  the  meaning  of  the 
sentence  or  render  it  unintelligible. 

Ex. — The  omission  of  a  preposition. 

"  You  will  seldom  find  a  dull  fellow  of  good  education  but  (if  he  happen 
to  have  any  leisure  on  his  hands)  will  turn  his  head  to  one  of  those  two 
amusements  for  all  fools  of  eminence,  politics  or  poetry."  Insert  to  before 
the  words  politics  and  poetry. 

Omission  of  a  nominative  with  its  verb. 

"  South,  as  great  a  wit  as  a  preacher,  has  separated  the  superior  and  the 
domestic."  Insert  he  was  between  as  and  a  preacher. 

Nominative  without  a  verb. 

"  The  Germans  of  the  present  day,  although  greatly  superior  to  their 
ancestors,  there  are  who  opine  that  they  are  still  distant  from  that  acme 
of  taste  which  characterizes  the  finished  compositions  of  the  French  and 
the  English  authors." 

The  article  omitted  before  adjectives  connected  with  the  same  noun 
when  the  design  is  to  express  qualities  of  different  objects,  and  not  differ- 
ent qualities  of  the  same  object. 

"A  cold  and  empty  composition"  means  one  composition  that  is  both 
cold  and  empty. 

"A  cold  and  an  empty  composition  "  means  two  compositions,  one  cold, 


Sec.  71  THE  SENTENCE.  135 

the  other  empty.     When  distinct  objects  are  intended,  the  article,  if  used 
before  one  adjective,  must  be  repeated  before  the  others. 

"  The  logical  and  historical  analysis  of  a  language  generally,  in  some 
degree,  coincides."  Two  distinct  kinds  of  analysis  are  spoken  of.  The 
article  should  be  repeated  before  historical,  and  the  verb  be  put  in  the 
plural. 

A  compound  sentence  may  be  free  from  the  faults  just  men- 
tioned and  still  be  deficient  in  clearness.  Too  many  ideas  may 
be  crowded  into  it ;  and  the  reader,  not  being  able  to  retain  all 
of  them  in  his  memory,  loses  the  connection,  and  is  obliged  to 
read  the  sentence  over  in  order  to  comprehend  it.  More  fre- 
quently the  obscurity  arises  from  the  want  of  method  in  distrib- 
uting the  materials.  It  often  requires  great  skill  to  dispose  the 
parts  of  a  complicated  thought.  The  great  object  is  to  avoid 
burdening  the  memory  with  a  number  of  disconnected  circum- 
stances, and  to  present  the  parts  in  such  an  order  as  will  enable 
the  reader  to  understand  them  as  they  are  presented,  to  retain 
them  in  his  mind,  and  to  bind  them  together  readily  into  one 
whole. 

To  accomplish  this  we  must  avoid  throwing  together  loosely 
a  number  of  details.  When  it  is  necessary  to  admit  them,  they 
should  be  distributed  among  the  members  of  the  sentence.  By 
this  means  the  sentence  is  made  more  coherent  and  compact, 
and  is  more  easily  understood.  The  effects  of  a  want  of  proper 
disposition'  can  be  seen  in  the  following  example : 

"And  that  it  was  not  peculiar  to  the  gift  of  language  or  tongues  only, 
to  be  given  at  the  moment  of  its  exertion,  but  common  likewise  to  all  the 
rest,  will  be  shown  probably  on  some  other  occasion  more  at  large  in  a 
particular  treatise,  which  is  already  prepared  by  me  on  that  subject." 

A  too  frequent  or  a  too  prolonged  suspension  of  the  sense  is 
fatal  to  clearness.  It  sometimes  favors  clearness  arid  force  to 
introduce  the  qualifying  circumstances  first,  reserving  the  prin- 
cipal member  until  the  last.  But  the  use  of  this  construction 
is  limited.  When  many  qualifications  are  mentioned  that  are 
not  intelligible  until  the  qualified  member  is  discovered,  the 
suspense  in  which  the  mind  is  kept  is  painful,  and  soon  breaks 


136  STYLE.  Sec.  71 

down  the  power  of  attention.  The  mind  can  not  carry  so  many 
disconnected  statements,  nor  connect  them  so  as  to  discover 
their  meaning. 

An  accumulation  of  negatives  is  another  occasion  of  obscu- 
rity. The  same  thought  may  be  expressed  in  an  affirmative 
proposition  and  in  a  negative $  as,  "I  entertain  a  favorable 
opinion  of  him,"  and,  "  I  entertain  a  not  unfavorable  opinion 
of  him."  The  latter  is  called  by  Hamilton,  an  indirect  and 
idle  way  of  speaking.  When  many  negatives  are  accumulated, 
the  sentence  is  often  unintelligible. 

Ex. — "  It  is  not  to  be  denied  that  a  high  degree  of  beauty  does  not  lie 
in  simple  forms." 

"As  a  general  maxim,  no  epithet  should  be  used  which  does  not  ex- 
press something  not  expressed  in  the  context,  nor  so  implied  in  it  as  to  be 
immediately  deducible." 

72,  Precision. — Precision  is  the  opposite  of  redundancy. 
It  consists  in  rejecting  all  superfluous  words  and  phrases.  Su- 
perfluous words  and  phrases  are  those  which  are  not  necessary 
to  complete  the  thought,  to  set  it  in  a  clearer  light,  or  to  pro- 
mote the  end  of  the  discourse.  Precision  is  an  essential  quality 
of  a  well  constructed  sentence ;  words  that  add  nothing  to  the 
sense  detract  from  the  clearness  and  force  of  the  expression. 
Like  perspicuity,  it  is  a  relative  quality ;  the  same  degree  of 
brevity  is  not  adapted  to  all  kinds  of  discourse.  Before  we  can 
decide  what  words  are  superfluous  and  what  are  not,  we  must 
consider  the  nature  and  aim  of  the  discourse,  and  the  condition 
of  those  to  whom  it  is  addressed. 

The  principal  offenses  against  precision  are : 

1.  Tautology,  or  the  unnecessary  repetition  of  a  notion  in 
different  terms.  The  most  common  form  of  this  fault  is  the 
coupling  of  synonyms.  Writers  frequently  become  so  accus- 
tomed to  linking  together  such  words  that  when  we  meet  with 
one  of  them  we  expect  the  other.  This  is  sometimes  the  result 
of  ignorance  of  the  full  meaning  of  the  words,  and  sometimes 
of  an  eifort  to  secure  greater  clearness  and  precision.  Such 


Sec.  72  THE  SENTENCE.  137 

expressions  as,  "  plain  and  evident,"  "clear  and  obvious,"  "joy 
and  satisfaction,"  "intents  and  purposes,"  and  others  which  the 
student  will  recollect,  are  of  frequent  occurrence.  The  employ- 
incut  of  these  stereotyped  and  unmeaning  modes  of  speech  is 
an  offense  not  only  against  perspicuity  and  precision  of  style, 
but  also  against  the  standard  of  good  taste.  It  must  be  distin- 
guished from  the  combining  of  synonymous  terms  with  a  view 
to  completeness. 

Ex. — "  Particularly  as  to  the  affairs  of  this  world,  integrity  hath  many 
advantages  over  all  tine  and  artificial  ways  of  dissimulation  and  deceit ;  it 
is  much  the  plainer  and  easier,  much  the  safer  and  more  secure  way  of 
dealing  with  the  world ;  it  has  less  of  trouble  and  difficulty,  of  entangle- 
ment and  perplexity,  of  danger  and  hazard  in  it." 

2.  Pleonasm,  or  the  insertion  of  words  designating  notions 
that  are  already  sufficiently  implied  in  other  words  of  the  sen- 
tence. There  are  various  forms  of  this  fault.  Many  phrases 
are  pleonastic ;  as,  "in  so  far  as,"  " from  whence." 

Expletives,  as,  do,  did,  there,  are  often  redundant.  They 
are  not  always  to  be  struck  out ;  they  sometimes  serve  to  mark 
light  shades  of  meaning,  to  express  feeling,  and  to  give  empha- 
sis. Many  epithets  are  pleonastic  ;  as,  "  the  verdant  green," 
"  the  azure  sky."  In  the  religious  dialect  many  pleonastic  ex- 
pressions taken  from  Scripture  are  used,  which  are  not  admis- 
sible into  ordinary  prose ;  as,  "  We  have  heard  with  our  ears," 
"  we  have  seen  with  our  eyes,"  "the  birds  of  the  air,"  "the  fish 
of  the  sea." 

The  nature  of  this  fault  and  some  of  its  most  common  forms 
will  be  learned  from  the  following  examples : 

"  We  are  to  act  up  to  the  extent  of  our  knowledge  ;  but,  in  so  far  as 
our  knowledge  falls  short,"  etc. 

"  They  returned  back  again  to  the  same  city  from  whence  they  came 
forth.1' 

"  Hence  has  ensued  an  entire  change  in  our  ivhole  domestic  policy." 

"  The  Inquisition  arrested  the  progress  of  general  intellectual  advance- 
ment." 

"  The  whole  sum  total  of  information."     "A  chaos  of  confusion." 
Rliet.  12 


138  STYLE.  Sec.  72 

"  Trifling  minutiae  of  style."     "  The  universal  love  of  all  men." 
"His  efforts  were  necessarily  confined  only  to  remonstrance  and  ex- 
hortation." 


3.  Verbosity,  or  unnecessary  diffuseness.  The  words  may 
be  neither  tautological  nor  pleonastic,  but  there  may  be  too 
many  of  them.  The  other  offenses  against  brevity  may  be  cor- 
rected by  striking  out  the  unmeaning  words ;  but  to  correct 
this  fault  it  is  often  necessary  to  alter  the  structure  of  the  sen- 
tence— to  compress  as  well  as  to  blot. 

Verbosity  is  generally  connected  with  prolixity,  which  means 
the  introduction  of  unimportant  circumstances,  or  such  as  the 
reader  can  readily  supply  from  his  own  knowledge  or  from  the 
context.  It  is  necessary  for  the  writer  to  be  so  completely 
master  of  the  thought  he  would  express,  that  he  can  distinguish 
between  what  is  relevant  and  what  is  irrelevant  $  and  to  exer- 
cise a  wise  self-control,  so  as  riot  to  be  led  astray  by  the  desire 
to  say  all  that  he  might  say  upon  the  subject.  He  must  leave 
something  to  the  reader's  activity  of  mind. 

Circumlocution  is  often  a  species  of  verbosity.  A  length- 
ened, round-about  mode  of  speech  is  allowable  for  the  sake  of 
variety  or  emphasis,  or  when  a  direct  assertion  might  be  offen- 
sive ;  but  when  none  of  these  ends  is  accomplished,  it  is  feeble 
and  affected. 

A  profusion  of  adjectives  is  another  form  of  verbosity.  The 
use  of  epithets  has  already  been  considered;  besides  these, 
'many  expressions  are  current,  which  are  supposed  to  give  dig- 
nity and  solemnity  to  the  style,  but  which,  as  they  have  ceased 
to  be  any  thing  but  meaningless  ornaments,  should  be  rejected. 
Instances  will  be  found  in  letters  of  condolence,  resolutions  of 
sympathy,  etc. 

The  Paraphrase  frequently  degenerates  into  verbosity.  Its 
aim  is  by  expanding  what  is  too  concisely  expressed  to  give 
greater  perspicuity  to  the  style ;  but  it  too  generally  obscures 
and  enfeebles  by  an  excess  of  words. 

The  brevity  that  has  just  been  described  is  distinct  from  that 
form  of  conciseness  which  expresses  the  greatest  amount  of 


Sec,  73  THE  SENTENCE.  139 

thought  in  the  fewest  possible  words.  This  laconic  style  is  very 
energetic,  presenting  thoughts  in  a  form  that  arouses  the  atten- 
tion and  fixes  them  in  the  memory.  It  makes  free  use  of  ellip- 
ses and  figures;  even  grammatical  improprieties  are  allowed; 
as  in  this  instance — u  Truth,  like  a  torch,  the  more  it's  shook 
it  shines."  But  such  energetic  brevity  is  not  an  essential 
quality  of  style:  it  is  suited  to  proverbs,  epigrams,  detached 
thoughts,  sentences,  and  the  like ;  but  its  frequent  use  in  con- 
tinuous discourse  is  a  fault.  It  makes  the  style  obscure,  frag- 
mentary, and  unnatural. 

73,  Energy. — The  qualities  mentioned  in  the  preceding  sec- 
tions are  all  necessary  conditions  of  strength.  A  weighty 
thought  when  enunciated  with  clearness  and  precision  can  not 
fail  to  impress  the  mind  of  the  reader.  There  are  additional 
means  towards  the  same  end  which  are  to  be  mentioned  here. 

1.  Inversion. — According  to  the  English  idiom,  the  subject 
precedes  the  predicate,  the  object  follows  the  verb,  and  qualify- 
ing words  are  placed  as  near  as  practicable  to  the  words  quali- 
fied. This  arrangement  is  observed  so  long  as  the  natural 
order  of  thought  coincides  with  the  grammatical ;  that  is,  so 
long  as  the  grammatically  important  words  are  identical  with 
the  logically  important.  This  is  not  always  the  case.  It  often 
happens  tha't  a  word  occupying  an  inferior  position  is  the  most 
prominent  one  in  the  thought,  and  the  one  to  which  the  writer 
is  specially  desirous  to  direct  attention.  A  speaker  can  effect 
this  by  emphasizing  the  word ;  a  writer,  by  such  a  collocation 
of  words  as  will  give  the  notion  a  conspicuous  place  in  the  sen- 
tence. The  grammatical  succession  is  changed ;  the  word  to 
be  emphasized  is  taken  out  of  the  position  assigned  it  by  the 
rules  of  syntax,  and  put  in  one  in  which  it  will  attract  atten- 
tion. There  is  thus  a  conflict  between  the  syntactical  order 
and  the  natural  order  of  thought  and  feeling;  to  express  suit- 
ably the  latter,  the  former  is  violated.  Such  a  departure  from 
the  strictly  idiomatic  arrangement  of  the  members  of  a  sen- 
tence for  the  sake  of  emphasis  is  called 


140  STYLE.  Sec.  73 

Owing  to  the  loss  of  inflectional  forms,  inversion  is  possible 
only  to  a  limited  extent  in  the  English  language.  Our  older 
writers,  in  imitation  of  classical  models,  allowed  themselves  a 
great  deal  of  liberty  in  using  it ;  they  sometimes,  by  this  means, 
gave  great  strength  and  harmony  to  their  style,  but  more  fre- 
quently they  rendered  it  stiff  and  obscure.  Although  the  lib- 
erty of  position  is  greatly  abridged,  we  still  have  within  limits 
the  power  of  indicating,  by  the  structure  of  the  sentence,  the 
emphatic  word. 

The  principal  forms  of  inversion  allowed  are: — The  predi- 
cate (adjective,  noun)  may  take  the  place  of  the  subject;  as, 

"Few  and  evil  have  the  days  of  the  years  of  my  life  been."  "And  the 
rain  descended,  and  the  floods  came,  and  the  winds  blew,  and  beat  upon 
that  house  ;  and  it  fell,  and  great  was  the  fall  of  it."  "  Nabal  is  his  name 
and  folly  is  with  him." 

The  verb  precedes  its  subject  $  as, 

"  Then  burst  his  mighty  heart."  "  Then  suddenly  would  come  a  dream 
of  far  different  character." 

The  object  (accusative)  precedes  the  governing  verb ;  as, 

"  Silver  and  gold  have  I  none."  "  Me  he  restored  unto  mine  office, 
him  he  hanged." 

Adverbs  of  time,  place,  manner,  and  adverbial  phrases  are 
separated  from  the  words  they  qualify  and  placed  before  them ; 

as, 

"  In  the  integrity  of  my  heart  have  I  done  this."  "  Into  these  dreams 
only  it  was,  with  one  or  two  slight  exceptions,  that  any  circumstances  of 
physical  horror  entered.  All  before  had  been  moral  and  spiritual  terrors. 
But  here  the  main  agents  were  ugly  birds,"  etc. 

Infinitives  and  participles  are  placed  before  the  auxiliary 
verb;  as, 

"Go  I  must."  "Avoid  it  I  can  not."  "  Blessed  is  he  that  considereth 
the  poor." 


Sec.  73  THE  SENTENCE. 

In  the  following  example  we  have  an  inversion  of  an  inter- 
rogative sentence : 

"  Your  fathers,  where  are  they  ?  and  the  prophets,  do  they  live  for- 


To  effect  an  alteration  in  the  arrangement  of  a  sentence,  the 
words  it  and  there  are  often  employed,  which  serve  to  place  the 
subject  after  the  verb ;  as, — 

"  There  appeared  unto  them  Moses  and  Elias." 
Compare  these  three  sentences: 

"Cicero  praised  Caesar."  "  It  was  Cicero  that  praised  Caesar."  "  It 
was  Caesar  that  Cicero  praised." 

Inversion  should  not  be  employed  except  in  compliance  with 
some  necessity  of  thought  or  passion.  To  use  it  for  its  own 
sake,  when  strong  emphasis  is  not  required,  is  unnatural  and 
often  ludicrous.  The  following  are  instances  of  such  trivial 
inversions : 

"Into  this  hole  thrust  themselves  three  Roman  senators."  "War  at 
that  time  there  was  none." 

It  should  not  be  admitted  when  it  would  lead  to  ambiguity 
or  obscurity.  It  should  be  used  moderately.  Inversion  is  to 
written  discourse  what  emphasis  is  to  spoken;  to  emphasize 
every  word  produces  the  same  effect  as  to  emphasize  none. 
The  allowable  forms  of  inversion  are  few,  and  a  writer  should 
not  venture  upon  novelties  in  the  collocation  of  words.  He 
should  especially  exclude  the  idioms  of  foreign  languages. 

2.  Connectives. — Asyndeton  and  Polysyndeton. — The 
strength  of  a  sentence  depends  greatly  on  the  proper  use  of  con- 
nectives, i.  e.,  of  words  having  no  signification  of  their  own, 
whose  office  it  is  to  indicate  the  relations  of  words  and  clauses. 
They  are  to  the  sentence  what  transitions  are  to  the  entire  dis- 
course, and  are  subject  to  the  same  general  laws. 


142  STYLE.  Sec.  73 

The  shortest  should  be  chosen.  Most  of  them  are  monosyl- 
lables, but  many  are  polysyllables;  as,  nevertheless,  notwith- 
standing, furthermore.  The  length  of  the  latter  makes  them 
too  prominent,  and  attracts  to  them  a  disproportionate  share  of 
attention ;  when  it  is  possible,  monosyllabic  connectives  should 
be  substituted  for  them.  The  use  of  these  drawling  conjunc- 
tions is  characteristic  of  our  older  writers  ;  they  are  rare  in  good 
modern  writers. 

In  some  cases  it  is  conducive  to  energy  to  omit  the  signs  of 
connection  between  the  different  members  of  a  sentence,  leav- 
ing the  reader  to  supply  them ;  while  in  other  cases  it  is  neces- 
sary to  give  to  every  member  its  appropriate  connective.  The 
former  construction  is  called  Asyndeton;  the  latter,  Polysyn- 
deton. Both  make  conspicuous  the  relations  of  the  notions  to 
each  other  and  to  the  main  thought  of  which  they  are  parts ; 
but  with  this  difference,  that  in  asyndeton  the  individual  no- 
tions of  the  series  are  separated  from  each  other  by  a  pause, 
and  each  is  made  emphatic;  in  polysyndeton,  on  the  other 
hand,  we  enumerate  the  different  members  and  call  attention  to 
their  multiplicity,  but  by  inserting  the  conjunctions  between 
them,  contrary  to  ordinary  usage,  we  indicate  that  they  are 
parts  of  a  more  comprehensive  notion ;  this  notion  it  is,  and 
not  the  separate  parts,  that  is  made  prominent. 

Ex. — "Closing  their  shields,  they  were  impelled,  they  fought,  they  slew, 
they  were  slain."  "  He  was  a  cheerful,  active,  brave  man,  a  kind  father, 
a  faithful  friend."  "  For  I  am  persuaded  that  neither  death,  nor  life,  nor 
angels,  nor  principalities,  nor  powers,  nor  things  present."  etc.  "Over 
every  form,  and  threat,  and  punishment,  and  dim  sightless  incarceration, 
brooded  a  killing  sense  of  eternity  and  infinity." 

3.  Periods  and  loose  sentences, — The  periodic  structure 
promotes  energy,  as  it  preserves  the  unity  of  the  sentence  and 
concentrates  its  strength  in  a  single  point.  But  it  has  an  arti- 
ficial appearance ;  it  is  unfitted  for  some  kinds  of  composition, 
and  its  frequent  recurrence  is  always  disagreeable.  It  is  not 
easy,  without  more  help  than  the  English  language  furnishes, 
to  enable  readers  to  retain  in  their  minds  the  members  of  a 


Sec.  73  THE  SENTENCE.  143 

complex  thought,  and  at  the  close  bind  them  easily  and 
promptly  into  unity.  To  prevent  obscurity  and  overtasking 
the  attention,  superfluous  words  and  thoughts  should  be  ex- 
cluded from  a  period,  and  the  members  and  clauses  should  be  few 
and  short.  In  arranging  the  clauses  of  the  members,  the  same 
rule  must  be  followed  that  governs  the  arrangement  of  the 
members  of  the  period ;  the  reader  must  not  be  led  to  suppose 
that  the  sentence  is  finished  until  it  actually  is  so.  When  this 
rule  is  neglected,  a  period  has  the  tediousness  and  feebleness  of 
a  badly  constructed  loose  sentence. 

In  the  following  example  the  periodic  structure  of  the  clauses  is  neg- 
lected: "Having  already  shown  how  the  fancy  is  affected  by  the  works 
of  nature,  and  afterward  considered,  in  general,  botli  the  works  of  nat- 
ure and  of  art,  \\  how  they  mutually  assist  and  complete  each  other  ||  in 
forming  such  scenes  and  prospects  as  are  most  apt  to  delight  the  mind  of 
the  beholder,  I  shall  in  this  paper  throw  together  some  reflections  on  that 
particular  art  which  has/'  etc. 

The  second  clause,  beginning  with  the  words  "  and  afterward  consid- 
ered "  and  ending  at  "  beholder,"  is  defective ;  Campbell  proposes  the 
following  alteration:  "And  afterward  considered,  in  general,  how  in 
forming  such  scenes  and  prospects  as  are  most  apt  to  delight  the  mind  of 
the  beholder,  the  works  both  of  nature  and  of  art  mutually  assist  and 
complete  each  other." 

A  loose  sentence  is  not  necessarily  deficient  in  energy,  By 
a  judicious. choice  and  arrangement  of  words,  the  writer  may 
keep  the  mind  of  the  reader  in  suspense  even  in  sentences  that 
are  grammatically  complete  before  their  close.  A  sentence 
may  thus  be  loose  and  yet  have  the  force  of  a  period.  Still, 
loose  sentences  are  very  liable  to  degenerate  into  incoherency 
and  feebleness.  To  prevent  these  faults,  the  following  cautions 
should  be  observed : 

1.  The  sentences  should  not  be  too  long.     Long  sentences 
are  liable  to  vagueness  and  intricacy;  but  even  when  otherwise 
faultless,  they  may  become  feeble  from  the  number  and  length 
of  their  parts ;  the  reader  becomes  impatient  and  is  apt  to  rest 
at  every  pause  that  occurs. 

2.  The  two  modes  of  arrangement  may  be  united  in  one  sen- 


144  STYLE.  Sec,  73 

tence ;  the  key  word  not  being  kept  back  until  the  close,  but 
introduced  at  a  convenient  point,  while,  at  the  same  time,  the 
clauses  of  the  members  are  arranged  according  to  the  laws  of 
the  period. 

3.  A  complex  sentence  is  often  tedious  and  dragging  from 
ending  with  a  much  longer  clause  than  it  began  with.     By 
reversing  the  order,  the  unpleasant  effects  are  prevented. 

4.  Symmetry  is  conducive  to  energy,     Resemblance  and 
contrast  between  thoughts  should  be  marked  by  similarity  of 
structure.     When  the  relations  of  thoughts  are  thus  indicated, 
by  framing  the  members  of  the  sentence  in  the  same  manner 
and  of  the  same  length,  they  are  made  more  conspicuous,  and 
the  thought,  by  the  repetition  of  the  form,  is  impressed  on  the 
memory. 

The  resemblance  or  opposition  should  be  real.  This  balanced 
structure  of  the  sentence  is  puerile  when  it  does  not  spring  from 
a  necessity  of  thought. 

The  following  are  instances  of  balanced  structure :  "  He  remits  his 
splendor,  but  retains  his  magnitude ;  and  pleases  more,  though  lie  dazzles 
less."  "But,  my  lord,  you  may  quit  the  field  of  business,  though  not  the 
field  of  danger ;  and  though  you  can  not  be  safe,  you  may  cease  to  be 
ridiculous.''* 

The  following  are  instances  of  the  violation  of  the  rule :  "  There  may 
remain  a  suspicion  that  we  overrate  the  greatness  of  his  genius,  in  the 
same  manner  as  bodies  appear  more  gigantic  on  account  of  their  being 
disproportioned  and  misshapen."  Better: — "in  the  same  manner  as  we 
overrate  the  greatness  of  bodies  that  are  disproportioned  and  mis- 
shapen." 

"If  men  of  eminence  are  exposed  to  censure  on  the  one  hand,  they  are 
as  much  liable  to  flattery  on  the  other.  If  they  receive  reproaches  which 
are  not  due  them,  they  likewise  receive  praises  winch  they  do  not  deserve." 
Substitute  for  "liable,"  "exposed,"  and  for  "which  they  do  not  deserve," 
"  which  are  not  due." 

"The  laughers  will  be  for  those  who  have  most  wit;  the  serious  part 
of  mankind,  for  those  who  have  most  reason  on  their  side."  Better: — 
"  the  serious,  for  those  W7ho  have  most  reason  on  their  side." 

Other  emphatic  verbal  forms  are  given  in  the  chapter  on  the 
Figures  of  Speech,  sees.  61-05. 


Sec.  74  THE  SENTENCE.  1-15 

74.  Melody. — Prose,  although  not  admitting  of  rhyme  and 
meter,  is  susceptible  of  a  melody  which  every  writer  should 
aim  to  attain.  It  is  subordinate  to  the  great  ends  of  prose  dis- 
course, and  must  not  divert  attention  from  the  ideas  to  be  pre- 
sented, nor  be  purchased  at  the  cost  of  clearness  and  force.  A 
vigorous  roughness  is  to  be  preferred  to  a  tame  smoothness. 
I  Jut  a  conflict  between  the  logical  perfections  of  language  and 
melody  is  of  rarer  occurrence  than  most  persons  suppose.  So 
intimate  is  the  connection  between  sound  and  sense,  that  if  we 
have  chosen  the  fitting  words,  and  connected  our  ideas  accord- 
ing to  both  their  main  and  their  subordinate  relations,  our  sen- 
tences will  seldom  offend  the  ear.  Harmony  and  melody  are 
not  so  much  independent  qualities,  as  the  natural  and  necessary 
result  of  the  conformity  of  language  to  thought  and  passion. 
Inharmonious  sentences  will  generally  be  found  to  be  deficient 
in  correctness,  clearness,  precision,  or  energy;  when  the  logical 
defects  are  remedied  the  disagreeable  roughness  disappears. 

Some  of  the  offenses  against  melody  and  harmony  are : 

(1)  Using  words  that  are  hard  to  pronounce;  such,  for  ex- 
ample, as  contain  a  cumulation  of  consonants,  or  a  succession 
of  short  unaccented  syllables,  or  occasion  a  clash  of  vowels. 

(2)  The  frequent  recurrence  of  the  same  sound,  either  from 
the  repetition  of  the  same  syllable  or  the  admission  of  rhyming 
words. 


Ex.— "The  rules  of  emphasis  come  in  in  interruption  of  your  supposed 
general  law  of  position."  "  This  day  we  undertone  to  render  account  to 
the  widows  and  orphans  whom  our  decision  will  make;  to  the  wretches 
that  will  be  roasted  at  the  stake,"  etc. 

The  effect  is  still  worse  when  there  is  a  recurrence  of  metrical  feet, 
thus:  "When  parallel  rays  come  contrary  ways,  and  fall  upon  opposite 
sides." 


(3)  Disproportionate  length  of  one  of  the  members  of  the 
sentence;  want  of  variety  in  the  length  and  structure  of  the 
different  members;  want  of  symmetry  when  the  thought  re- 
quires it ;  closing  with  an  insignificant,  unemphatic  word. 

Rhet.  13 


146  STYLE.  Sec.  74 

The  following  criticism  (borrowed  from  Bain's  Rhetoric)  on  a  short 
sentence  of  Johnson's  will  suffice  to  illustrate  the  foregoing  principles  : 

"Johnson  says  :  '  Tediousness  is  the  most  fatal  of  all  faults.'  The  stiff- 
ness of  this  sentence  is  felt  at  once.  On  examination  we  note  :  1st.  The 
want  of  melody  in  the  word  tediousness,  from  the  crowd  of  consonants, 
and  the  iteration  of  «.  2d.  The  additional  hissing  consonant  in  is  (al- 
though the  hard  sound  z).  3d.  The  concurrence  of  four  unemphatic  syl- 
lables in  succession  ;  namely,  the  last  two  in  tediousness  and  is  the.  4th. 
The  additional  s  in  most.  5th.  The  concurrence  of  consonants  at  the  end 
of  mont  and  the  beginning  of  fatal;  this  can  not  always  be  avoided.  6th. 
The  alliterations  fataZ  a?Z,  /atal/aults,  all  faults,  make  the  last  few  words 
singularly  unmelodious." 

(4)  The  repetition  of  certain  words  in  close  succession.  This 
is  a  frequent  offense  ;  one  from  which  good  authors  are  not  alto- 
gether free,  and  which  those  who  are  compelled  to  write  hastily 
seldom  avoid. 


has  embodied  in  his  views  a  more  extensive  view  of 
"It  soon  appeared  that  these  diplomatic  courtesies  meant 
more  than  appeared  on  the  surface."  "The  few  who  regarded  them  in 
their  true  light  were  regarded  as  dreamers."  "  Wellington  was  anxious 
to  be  relieved  of  all  anxiety  in  that  quarter."  "They  consented  to  main- 
tain such  troops  in  them  as  might  be  deemed  necessary  to  maintain  their 
tranquillity."  "  The  proposal  was  no  great  violation  of  the  liberties  of  the 
subject,  for  it  only  proposed  to  subject  military  persons  to  the  trial  of  their 
military  superiors." 


CHAPTEE  Y. 

THE   PARAGRAPH. 

75.  Paragraph  defined. — In  the  foregoing  chapter  we  have 
treated  of  the  rules  for  combining  words  and  clauses  into  sen- 
tences. But  sentences  do  not  appear  in  a  discourse  as  sepa- 
rate, independent  enunciations  of  thought ;  they  are  parts  of  a 
larger  unity,  each  sustaining  a  definite  relation  to  the  one  that 


Sec.  77  THE  PARAGRAPH.  147 

precedes  and  the  one  that  follows.  A  connected  series  of  sen- 
tences containing  the  development  of  a  single  topic  is  called  a 
Paragraph. 

76.  The  structure  of  Paragraphs. — The  general  laws  gov- 
erning the  construction  of  a  paragraph  are  the  same  as  those 
governing  the  composition  of  an  entire  discourse.     As  it  is  a 
more  or  less  full  development  of  a  complex  thought,  it  may  be 
regarded  as  a  discourse  in  miniature,  to  which  the  same  prin- 
ciples for  preparing  the  theme,  properly  disposing  the  parts,  and 
marking  their  connection  are  applicable,  as  are  applied  to  an 
entire  essay,  oration,  or  treatise. 

The  art  of  constructing  them  is  not  acquired  without  labor 
and  patience.  One  may  be  skillful  in  framing  sentences  and 
not  succeed  in  combining  them  into  connected  paragraphs. 
Exercises  in  constructing  them,  and  in  analyzing  those  of  dif- 
ferent writers  on  different  subjects,  to  learn  their  method  of 
framing  them,  ought  to  have  a  prominent  place  in  a  rhetorical 
course.  Such  exercises  are  the  most  convenient  means  of  ap- 
plying the  general  principles  of  style,  and  of  cultivating  correct 
habits  of  thinking  and  writing. 

Paragraphs  are  of  different  kinds  according  to  their  matter ; 
they  may  be  narrative,  descriptive,  expository,  or  argumenta- 
tive. Hence  they  are  subject  to  the  special  laws  of  the  Ele- 
mentary Forms  of  Discourse  (Part  III). 

77.  The  requisites  of  a  paragraph  are  Unity,  Continuity,    ^ 
Proportion,  Variety. 

Unity. — This  quality  requires  that  a  paragraph  should  have 
but  a  single  theme ;  that  all  the  sentences  should  have  a  direct 
bearing  on  the  theme,  contributing  to  explain,  illustrate,  prove, 
or  apply  it ;  that  whatever  is  irrelevant  be  excluded ;  and  that 
it  be  not  overloaded  with  details. 

Continuity. — The  exact  relation  of  the  constituent  sentences 
to  each  other  must  be  distinctly  indicated. 


148  STYLE.  Sec.  77 

The  relations  between  the  sentences  may  be  of  various  kinds 
and  of  various  degrees ;  some  of  the  sentences  may  be  coordi- 
nate with  those  preceding ;  some  may  be  subordinate.  But 
whatever  the  connection,  however  close  or  remote,  it  is  indis- 
pensable to  clearness  and  force  that  it  be  easily  and  certainly 
recognized.  It  will  not  suffice  to  present  the  details  with  clear- 
ness ;  the  reader  must  understand  their  significance  and  bear- 
ings, and  obtain  without  too  great  an  effort  a  view  of  the  entire- 
structure  of  which  they  are  parts. 

It  is  not  always  easy  to  comply  with  this  rule.  Accurate 
and  often  subtle  thinking,  and  considerable  practice  in  writing, 
are  required  to  give  facility  in  seizing  the  exact  relations  of 
thoughts  and  expressing  them  with  clearness  and  accuracy. 
Careless  and  unpracticed  writers  often  suggest,  by  the  language 
they  employ,  connections  of  thought  entirely  different  from 
those  they  intend,  or  leave  the  reader  in  doubt  what  is  the  con- 
nection to  be  expressed.  Others,  who  are  not  guilty  of  so 
gross  faults,  fail  to  discern  and  bring  out  the  more  delicate  and 
subtle  relations  upon  which  the  force  and  elegance  of  style 
greatly  depend. 

The  connection  between  sentences  is  marked  in  various 
ways. 

1.  By  conjunctions  (copulative,  illative,  adversative,  etc.) 
and  by  conjunctional  phrases  (add  to  this,  on  the  contrary,  in 
short,  to  conclude,  so  far,  etc.) 

With  respect  to  the  use  of  conjunctions  and  conjunctional 
phrases,  it  is  to  be  remarked,  First,  that  they  are  not  always 
necessary. 

Xo  rule  can  be  given  to  direct  when  to  use  and  when  to 
omit  them.  Our  older  authors  used  more  conjunctions  and 
used  them  more  lavishly  than  is  customary  at  the  present  day. 
They  marked  the  minute  relations  of  thoughts  by  different  con- 
junctions, leaving  nothing  to  the  reader  to  supply,  and  thus 
made  their  style  dragging  and  stiff.  The  tendency  nowadays 
is  to  diminish  the  number  of  conjunctions  by  forcing  one  to 
perform  the  office  of  several,  and  to  dispense  as  far  as  possible 
with  the  use  of  them.  The  style  becomes  thereby  more 


Sec.  77  THE  PARAGRAPH.  149 

sprightly;  but  when  the  tendency  is  earned  to  excess,  it  breaks 
up  the  paragraph  into  short,  independent  sentences,  between 
which  no  connection  can  be  found,  and  which  it  is  impossible 
to  retain  in  the  memory. 

Secondly.  The  frequent  repetition  of  the  same  conjunction  is 
a  fault,  amounting  at  times  to  offensive  mannerism.  It  is 
generally  connected  with  a  defective  structure  of  sentences 
resulting  from  slovenly  thinking. 

Ex. — "Augereau  was  soon,  however,  dismissed  the  corps  for  a  serious 
offense,  and  returned  to  Paris  penniless  and  in  disgrace.  There,  however, 
his  lofty  stature  and  military  air  again  attracted  the  attention  of  the 
recruiting  sergeants,  and  he  was  enrolled  in  the  regiment  of  carabineers 
commanded  by  the  Marquis  Poyanna.  There,  however,  his  mischievous 
disposition  a  second  time  broke  out,  and  he  was  expelled  from  his  new 
corps  for  carrying  off  his  captain's  horses  to  sell  them  in  Switzerland." 

"It  is  true  lie  was  an  inveterate  reader,  amorously  inclined  towards 
vellum  tomes  and  illuminated  parchments,  but  he  did  not  covet  them,  like 
some  collectors,  for  the  mere  pride  of  possessing  them ;  bat  gloried  in 
feasting  on  their  intellectual  charms  and  delectable  wisdom,  and  sought 
in  their  attractive  pages  the  means  of  becoming  a  better  Christian  and  a 
wiser  man.  But  he  was  so  excessively  fond  of  books,  and  became  so 
deeply  engrossed  with  his  book-collecting  pursuits,  that  it  is  said  some  of 
the  monks  showed  a  little  dissatisfaction  at  his  consequent  neglect  of  the 
affairs  of  the  monastery ;  but  these  are  faults  I  can  not  find  the  heart  to 
blame  him  for,  bat  am  inclined  to  consider  his  conduct  fully  redeemed  by 
the  valuable  encouragement  he  gave  to  literature  and  learning." 

Thirdly.  The  accumulation  of  conjunctions  without  necessity 
ought  to  be  avoided.  Two  conjunctions  may  meet  together  at 
the  beginning  of  a  sentence  when  one  connects  the  sentence 
with  the  preceding,  and  the  other  expresses  the  relation  between 
two  clauses  of  the  sentence. 

Ex. — "I  go  to  prepare  a  place  for  you.  And  if  I  go  and  prepare  a 
place  for  you,  I  will  come  again  and  receive  you  unto  myself." 

"It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  to  us  that  we  associate  principally 
with  the  wise  and  virtuous.  When,  therefore,  we  choose  our  companions, 
w«*  ought  to  be  extremely  careful  in  regard  to  the  choice  we  make." 

Sometimes  we  find  a  sentence  with  three  conjunctions  in 


130  STYLE.  Sec.  77 

succession.     But  such  an  accumulation  is  rarely  compatible 
with  clearness  and  force. 


Ex. — "To  those  who  do  not  love  God,  the  enjoyment  of  him  is  unat- 
tainable. Now  as  that  we  may  love  God,  it  is  necessary  to  know  him;  so 
that  we  may  know  God,  it  is  necessary  to  study  his  works." 

2.  By  the  structure  of  the  sentence.  The  relation  of  a  sen- 
tence to  the  preceding  may  be  distinctly  indicated  by  means  of 
inversion,  contrast,  and  words  referring  to  something  that  has 
gone  before.  By  this  means  we  may  form  a  series  of  sentences 
in  which  the  succeeding  will  appear  to  be  suggested  by  some 
expression  or  turn  of  thought  in  the  one  preceding.  In  skillful 
hands  this  method  imparts  a  high  degree  of  beauty  to  the  style, 
but  with  inferior  writers  it  degenerates  into  feebleness  and 
affectation. 

* 

The  following  sentences  will  illustrate  the  nature  of  this  mode  of  refer- 
ence. The  words  of  reference  are  in  italics.  "One  day  a  Malay  knocked 
at  my  door.  What  business  a  Malay  could  have  to  transact  among  the 
English  mountains,  I  can  not  conjecture."  "  He  lay  down  upon  the  floor 
for  about  an  hour,  and  then  pursued  his  journey.  On  Iris  departure,  I 
presented  him  with  a  piece  of  opium.  To  him,  as  an  orientalist,  I  con- 
cluded that  opium  must  be  familiar,"  etc.  (Notice  the  inversions.) 

78.  Proportion. — The  several  thoughts  which  are  brought 
together  in  one  paragraph  ought  to  be  presented  in  their  due 
relief.  The  important  ones  should  have  the  conspicuous  posi- 
tions ;  the  inferior  should  be  put  in  the  obscurer  places.  The 
main  thoughts  ought  to  be  exhibited  as  such,  and  the  subordi- 
nate be  exhibited  as  subordinate. 

This  rule  is  violated  when  a  thought  which  ought  to  be  con- 
tained in  a  principal  member  of  a  sentence  is  given  in  a  sub- 
ordinate clause ;  also  when  any  of  the  details  are  too  long  dwelt 
upon,  and  thus  raised  out  of  their  proper  place.  It  is  better  to 
allow  a  subordinate  thought  to  pass  imperfectly  exhibited,  than 
by  disturbing  the  relations  of  the  parts  to  destroy  the  impres- 
sion of  the  whole  paragraph. 


Sec.  78  THE  PARAGRAPH.  151 

Variety. — Variety  in  the  structure  and  length  of  the  succes- 
sive sentences  must  be  consulted.  Uniformity  is  inconsistent 
with  a  just  exhibition  of  the  relations  of  the  thoughts,  exhausts 
the  attention,  and  becomes  intolerably  irksome. 

One  species  of  uniformity  is  produced  when  the  series  is  com- 
posed of  sentences  of  the  same  class ;  as,  when  all  are  condi- 
tional or  interrogative,  loose,  periodic,  or  balanced.  Even  to 
begin  or  end  sentences  too  often  in  the  same  manner  is  objec- 
tionable. 

Another  species  is  produced  by  a  succession  of  sentences  of 
the  same  length. 

Writers  differ  greatly  as  to  the  length  of  sentences ;  some 
prefer  long,  others  short.  Short  sentences  are  more  lively  and 
familiar,  and  better  adapted  to  works  of  entertainment  and 
popular  instruction.  Long  sentences  require  a  greater  effort  of 
attention,  and  are  suited  to  weighty,  abstruse,  and  elevated 
thoughts.  Nowadays  we  incline  to  the  use  of  short  sentences. 
It  is,  however,  often  important  to  exhibit  a  complex  thought 
with  its  necessary  qualifications,  limitations,  circumstances, 
etc.,  in  a  single  view  ;  to  break  it  up  into  minute  fragments 
would  be  to  destroy  it.  In  the  higher  forms  of  prose,  both  di- 
dactic and  oratorical,  long  sentences  are  frequent  and  unavoid-  J 
able. 

But  whatever  may  be  the  respective  advantages  of  brevity 
and  length,  they  will  be  lost  if  a  number  of  sentences  of  the 
same  length,  whether  long  or  short,  follow  each  other  in  the 
same  paragraph.  Although  each  separately  taken  may  be  un- 
derstood without  an  effort  and  produce  a  pleasing  effect,  the 
repetition  of  the  same  mental  process  in  attending  to  the  series 
inevitably  engenders  weariness.  In  a  series  of  very  short  sen- 
tences in  which  the  thought  is  distributed  into  disconnected 
portions,  a  painful  effort  is  constantly  required  to  make  out  the 
relation  between  them,  to  keep  them  in  view,  and  to  gather 
from  them  the  leading  idea.  A  series  of  long  sentences  leads 
to  the  same  results  in  a  different  way ;  the  mind  is  exhausted 
by  the  uninterrupted  effort  of  analyzing  and  remembering  the 
complex  presentations  of  thought. 


152  STYLE.  Sec.  78 

Hence,  a  mixture  of  long  and  short  sentences  is  necessary 
to  prevent  the  languor  resulting  from  uniformity ;  it  does  not 
merely  gratify  the  ear, — it  aids  the  mind  in  following  and  re- 
taining the  train  of  thought. 

The  style  in  which  the  sense  is  given  in  short  sentences,  each 
complete  in  itself,  is  called  by  the  French  the  style  coupe,  and 
is  distinguished  from  the  style  periodique,  in  which  the  sen- 
tences are  longer  and  duly  linked  together. 

The  following  is  an  example  of  the  style  coupe:  "From  a  political 
point  of  view,  there  is  but  one  single  principle :  the  sovereignty  of  man 
over  himself.  This  sovereignty  of  myself  over  myself  is  called  liberty. 
Where  two  or  several  of  these  sovereignties  associate  the  state  begins. 
In  this  association  there  is  no  abdication.  Each  sovereignty  gives  up  a 
certain  portion  of  itself  to  form  the  common  right.  That  portion  is  the 
same  for  all.  This  identity  of  concession  which  each  makes  to  all  is  called 
equality.  The  protection  of  all  over  each  is  called  fraternity.  The  point 
of  intersection  of  all  these  aggregated  sovereignties  is  called  society." 

/  As  a  general  rule,  it  is  advisable  to  make  the  sentences  at 
the  beginning  of  a  paragraph  brief.  As  a  sentence  ought  not  to 
close  with  an  insignificant  word,  so  it  is  a  fault  to  end  a  para- 
graph with  a  secondary,  unimportant  thought.  The  conclusion 
should  be  a  leading  thought,  embodying  the  result  of  what  has 
gone  before,  or  preparing  for  what  is  to  follow,  and  will  usually 
be  expressed  in  a  sentence  of  some  length.  A  very  short  sen- 
tence is  not  appropriate  unless  it  be  an  energetic,  condensed 
statement  of  a  weighty  truth. 

There  are  exceptions  to  the  law  of  variety.  To  give  to  a 
thought  its  just  expression,  it  is  often  necessary  to  study  sym- 
metry in  the  structure  of  the  paragraph,  just  as  it  is  often  nec- 
essary to  study  it  in  constructing  sentences.  When  by  preserv- 
ing uniformity  of  structure  we  can  keep  the  main  ideas  in  their 
proper  position,  bring  out  the  points  of  resemblance  and  differ- 
ence of  objects,  and  make  important  relations  prominent,  it 
would  be  a  blunder  to  vary  the  construction.  This  would  be  to 
sacrifice  the  higher  qualities  to  the  sound. 

Ex.— To  vary  the  structure  would  weaken  and  obscure  the  following 
parallel :  "  Homer  was  the  greater  genius ;  Virgil  the  better  artist ;  in 


Sec.  80  THE  PAKAdUAPH.  1&5 

tin*  one,  we  most  admire  the  man  ;  in  the  otlier,  the  work.  Homer  hurries 
us  with  a  commanding  impetuosity;  Virgil  leads  us  with  an  attractive 
majesty.  Homer  scatters  with  a  generous  profusion  ;  Virgil  bestows  with 
a  careful  magnificence.  Homer,  like  the  Nile,  pours  out  his  riches  with 
a  sudden  overflow ;  Virgil,  like  a  river  in  its  banks,  with  a  constant 
stream." 

79.  Announcing  the  Theme. — The  theme  of  the  paragraph 
ought  to  be  distinctly  indicated.     Sometimes  it  is  not  explicitly 
stated,  and  the  reader  is  left  to  gather  it  from  the  text.     In 
some  subjects  this  may  be  safely  done,  but  it  frequently  pro- 
duces obscurity.     When  the  theme  is  new  or  at  all  abstruse,  it 
should  be  announced. 

It  may  be  laid  down  in  a  brief  sentence  towards  the  begin- 
ning ;  not  necessarily  in  the  first  sentence ;  for  paragraphs  are 
connected  together  as  parts  of  a  larger  unity,  and  the  opening 
sentence  is  often  a  transition,  in  the  form  of  a  summary  of 
something  previously  given,  connecting  a  paragraph  with  the 
preceding. 

Sometimes,  instead  of  being  stated  at  the  beginning,  it  is 
withheld  until  the  close.  The  author  first  enumerates  the  par- 
ticulars before  announcing  the  general  truth  which  he  draws 
from  them,  or  gives  his  arguments  and  prepares  the  way  for 
the  proposition  before  he  brings  it  forward.  Occasionally  the 
theme  is  stated  at  the  beginning,  and  is  repeated  at  the  con- 
clusion. 

To  give  due  emphasis  to  the  enunciation  of  the  theme,  it  is 
sometimes  repeated  ;  the  second  statement  is  often  a  condensed, 
figurative  one. 

Ex. — "The  practical  danger  which  lias  sometimes  been  apprehended 
from  metaphysical  pursuits,  has  in  reality  only  been  found  to  follow  from 
their  stunted  and  partial  cultivation.  The  poison  has  grown  up ;  the  anti- 
dote has  been  repressed. " 

80.  Examples  illustrating  the  foregoing  rules. — Those 
who  wish  to  become  familiar  with  the  principles  of  the  con- 
struction of  paragraphs  should  study  carefully  passages  taken 
from  different  authors,  and  from  various  classes  of  composi- 


!54  STYLE.  Sec.  80 

tion — history,  didactic  treatises,  and  orations.  The  examples 
below  will  answer  to  illustrate  the  rules  laid  down,  and  will 
give  the  student  some  hints  how  to  apply  them. 

(1)  "The  other  thing  to  be  considered  is,  that  in  this  great  work,  the 
understanding  is  chiefly  at  the  disposal  of  the  will.  (2)  For  though  it  is 
not  in  the  power  of  the  will,  directly  either  to  cause  or  hinder  the  assent 
of  the  understanding  to  a  tiling  proposed,  and  duly  set  before  it;  yet  it  is 
antecedently  in  the  power  of  the  will  to  apply  the  understanding  faculty 
to,  or  to  take  it  off  from  the  consideration  of  those  objects  to  which,  with- 
out such  a  previous  consideration,  it  can  not  yield  its  assent.  (3)  For  all 
assent  presupposes  a  simple  apprehension  or  knowledge  of  the  terms  of  the 
proposition  to  be  assented  to.  (4)  But  unless  the  understanding  employ 
and  exercise  its  cognitive  or  apprehensive  power  about  these  terms,  there 
can  be  no  actual  apprehension  of  them.  (5)  And  the  understanding,  as  to 
the  exercise  of  this  power,  is  subject  to  the  command  of  the  will ;  though 
as  to  the  specific  nature  of  its  acts  it  is  determined  by  the  object.  (6)  As 
for  instance,  my  understanding  can  not  assent  to  this  proposition,  'that 
Jesus  Christ  is  the  Son  of  God;'  but  it  must  first  consider,  and  so  appre- 
hend what  the  terms  and  parts  of  it  are,  and  what  they  signify.  (7)  And 
this  can  not  be  done  if  my  will  be  so  slothful,  worldly,  or  voluptuously  dis- 
posed, as  never  to  suffer  me  at  all  to  think  of  them,  but  perpetually  to 
carry  away  and  apply  my  mind  to  other  things.  (8)  Tims  far  is  the  un- 
derstanding at  the  disposal  of  the  will."  Dr.  South's  Sermons. 

This  is  an  argumentative  paragraph.  It  contains  the  proof 
and  illustration  of  a  single  proposition,  viz.,  that  the  assent  of 
the  understanding  to  the  truths  of  religion  is  in  a  great  meas- 
ure under  the  control  of  the  will.  Every  sentence  has  a  direct 
bearing  on  the  theme. 

The  theme  is  explicitly  stated  (1),  and  is  repeated  at  the  close 
(8).  It  is  given  due  prominence  throughout.  To  present  it 
more  distinctly  and  obviate  all  misunderstanding,  the  necessary 
qualifications  are  given,  and  the  proposition  maintained  is  put 
in  contrast  with  the  erroneous  views  with  which  it  is  liable  to 
be  confounded  (2),  (5). 

The  sentences  are  closely  connected.  (2)  is  the  statement  of 
a  general  truth  confirming  (1).  (3),  (4),  (5),  are  arguments 
proving  (2).  ((>),  (7),  are  an  illustration  of  the  proposition. 

The  connection  of  the  sentences  is  carefully  marked  both  by- 


Sec.  80  THE  PARAGRAPH.  155 

conjunctions  and  words  of  reference  (in  italics).  The  reason- 
ing would  be  more  readily  understood,  if  uniformity  of  .struct- 
ure had  been  preserved  in  (3),  (4),  and  (5).  The  emphatic 
words  in  these  sentences  are,  u assent — apprehension,"  "appre- 
hension— exercise  of  the  understanding,"  u  exercise  of  the  un- 
derstanding— command  of  the  will."  There  is  a  mixture  of 
long  and  short  sentences. 

The  next  example  is  from  Macaulay's  Essay  on  Lord  Bacon: 

(1)  "The  years  during  which  Bacon  held  the  great  seal  were  among 
the  darkest  and  most  shameful  in  English  history.  (2)  Every  tiling  at 
home  and  abroad  was  mismanaged.  (3)  First  came  the  execution  of 
Raleigh,  an  act  which,  if  done  in  a  proper  manner,  might  have  been  defen- 
sible, but  which,  under  all  the  circumstances,  must  be  considered  as  a 
dastardly  murder.  (4)  Worse  was  behind — the  war  of  Bohemia,  the  suc- 
cesses of  Tilly  and  Spinola,  the  Palatinate  conquered,  the  king's  son-in- 
law  an  exile,  the  house  of  Austria  dominant  on  the  continent,  the  Protest- 
ant religion  and  the  liberties  of  the  Germanic  body  trodden  under  foot. 
(5)  In  the  meantime,  the  wavering  and  cowardly  policy  of  England  fur- 
nished matter  of  ridicule  to  all  the  nations  of  Europe.  (6)  The  love  of 
peace  which  James  professed  would,  even  when  indulged  to  an  impolitic 
excess,  have  been  respectable  if  it  had  proceeded  from  tenderness  for  his 
people.  (7)  But  the  truth  is,  that,  while  he  had  nothing  to  spare  for  the 
defense  of  the  natural  allies  of  England,  he  resorted  without  scruple  to  the 
most  illegal  and  oppressive  devices  for  the  purpose  of  enabling  Bucking- 
ham and  Buckingham's  relations  to  outshine  the  ancient  aristocracy  of 
the  realm.  (8)  Benevolences  were  exacted.  (9)  Patents  of  monopoly 
wTere  multiplied.  (10)  All  the  resources  which  could  have  been  employed 
to  replenish  a  beggared  exchequer,  at  the  close  of  a  ruinous  war,  were  put 
in  motion  during  this  season  of  ignominious  peace." 

The  theme  is  announced  in  the  opening  sentence  (1),  and 
repeated  in  a  more  determinate  form  in  (2).  It  is  confirmed 
by  an  enumeration  of  particulars — the  murder  of  Raleigh  (3); 
mismanagement  abroad  (4),  (5);  mismanagement  at  home  ((>)- 
(9) ;  closing  with  the  comprehensive  statement  (10).  The  unity 
is  complete ;  the  proportion  of  parts  is  observed  ;  the  parts  are 
closely  connected  by  their  relation  to  the  common  theme,  and 
in  most  of  the  sentences  by  words  of  reference,  etc.  The  sen- 
tences are  short,  but  sufficiently  varied.  Notice  the  construc- 
tion of  (4). 


156  STYLE.  Sec.  81 

CHAPTER   VI. 

DIVISION  OF   STYLE. 

81.  Recapitulation. — The  portion  of  rhetoric  which  has  been 
gone  over  constitutes  what  may  be  called  General  Rhetoric,  as 
it  embraces  the  laws  of  prose  composition  in  general  without 
regard  to  the  matter  and  aim  of  the  particular  discourse. 

Part  First  contains  a  description  of  the  mental  processes  in- 
volved in  the  act  of  composition.  The  subject,  which  is  either 
given  to  the  writer  or  chosen  by  him,  is  at  first  vague  and  un- 
defined. The  first  step  is  to  reduce  it  to  a  determinate,  pre- 
cisely stated  theme.  The  next  step  is  to  form  an  outline  or 
skeleton  of  the  discourse,  which  is  done  by  gathering  by  medi- 
tation the  main  ideas,  and  then  arranging  them  in  such  an 
order  arid  proportion  as  their  logical  relations  and  the  necessi- 
ties of  the  discourse  require.  These  main  ideas  are  then  to  be 
developed;  the  ideas  necessary  to  connect  them  (transitions) 
are  found;  and  the  thoughts  necessary  to  explain,  illustrate, 
and  confirm  them  are  gathered  and  arranged  in  due  order. 
Thus  the  outline  or  rude  scheme  becomes  a  completed,  well 
rounded,  consistent  whole. 

So  far  we  have  dealt  only  with  the  thought  as  it  exists  in 
the  writer's  mind.  But  this  thought  is  to  become  external — 
be  imparted  to  others.  It  must,  therefore,  be  embodied  in 
language.  Language  was,  of  course,  employed  in  the  proc- 
esses of  thinking  which  we  have  just  described,  for  language 
and  thought  are  inseparable;  but  the  writer's  attention  was 
directed  mainly  to  the  invention  and  elaboration  of  ideas,  with 
no  special  regard  to  the  manner  in  which  they  should  be  ex- 
pressed so  as  to  be  understood  by  others.  But  having  become 
master  of  his  thoughts,  his  next  task  is  to  embody  them  in  such 
language  as  will  convey  them  to  others,  and  bring  their  minds 
and  wills  into  harmony  with  his;  i.  £.,  to  give  them  an  ade- 
quate expression. 

The  rules  for  the  adequate  expression  of  thought  have  been 
given  in  the  preceding  chapters  of  this  Second  Part. 


Sec.  82  DIVISION  OF  STYLE.  157 

To  be  adequate,  the  expression  of  thought  must  comply  with 
two  conditions. 

1st.  As  to  the  matter:  it  must  convey  the  exact  thought  in 
a  manner  corresponding  to  its  importance. 

Ud.  As  to  the  hearer:  it  must  call  his  powers  of  thought  and 
feeling  into  free  and  unimpeded  activity,  neither  stimulating 
them  beyond,  nor  repressing  their  tendency  toward  their  natu- 
ral limit.  Hence  it  must  both  economize  his  attention  and 
give  free  play  to  his  activities. 

The  essential  qualities  of  style  resulting  from  a  compliance 
with  these  conditions  are  propriety,  perspicuity,  and  vivacity. 

These  qualities  of  style  depend  on  the  choice  and  arrange- 
ment of  words.  As  to  the  words  which  are  the  proper,  literal 
signs  of  ideas,  those  only  are  to  be  selected  which  are  recog- 
nized as  belonging  to  the  common  national  speech ;  are  in 
current  use ;  are  offensive  neither  to  moral  purity  nor  refined 
feeling:  and  are  accurate,  becoming  expressions  of  the  ideas  to 
be  conveyed.  To  secure  the  highest  degree  of  vivacity,  the 
figures  of  speech  are  employed, which  serve  to  present  ideas  in 
a  concrete,  sensible  form  to  the  imagination,  and  with  emphasis 
to  the  understanding  and  feelings. 

The  words  are  combined  into  sentences  to  express  thoughts. 
The  requisites  of  a  sentence,  it  has  been  shown,  are  correctness, 
unity,  clearness,  precision,  energy,  and  melody. 

Sentences  are  combined  to  form  a  larger  and  more  complex 
unity,  called  a  Paragraph ;  the  essential  qualities  of  which  are 
unity,  continuity,  proportion,  and  variety. 

82.  Differences  of  Style. — The  qualities  described  in  the 
foregoing  chapters,  and  briefly  mentioned  in  the  last  section, 
must  appear  in  every  composition  on  whatever  subject  it  is 
written ;  there  can  not  be  an  adequate  expression  of  thought 
where  any  one  of  them  is  lacking. 

But  the  manner  of  expression  is  modified  by  the  matter  and 
aim  of  the  discourse  and  the  peculiarities  of  the  writer.  If  a 
man  writes  with  simplicity  and  earnestness,  his  mental  and 
moral  character  will  reveal  itself  both  in  his  thoughts  and  Ian- 


158  STYLE.  Sec.  82 

guage.  Where  the  stamp  of  individuality  is  wanting  there  is 
no  style. 

Style,  then,  is  as  varied  as  human  character,  and  it  may  be 
said  that  there  are  as  many  kinds  of  style  as  there  are  writers. 
But  there  are  points  of  view  from  which  we  can  contemplate  this 
infinite  variety,  and  reduce  it  to  a  few  classes.  It  is  plain  that 
there  are  many  divisions  of  style  possible,  since  there  are  many 
qualities  any  one  of  which  can  serve  as  a  principle  of  division. 
Thus,  it  may  be  divided  with  respect  to  the  matter  into  his- 
torical, didactic,  etc.;  with  respect  to  the  number  of  words,  into 
the  concise,  sententious,  laconic,  terse,  copious,  diffuse,  verbose ; 
with  respect  to  the  use  of  figures,  into  the  florid,  ornate,  plain, 
dry;  with  respect  to  the  arrangement  of  words  and  clauses, 
into  the  natural,  indirect,  inverted,  periodic,  epigrammatic, 
flowing. 

The  division  adopted  in  most  Rhetorics  is  one  founded  on 
the  difference  in  the  general  character  of  style.  The  most  gen- 
eral characteristics  are  chosen  as  the  basis  of  classification,  and 
no  sharp  discrimination  is  attempted.  According  to  this  divis- 
ion, there  are  three  kinds  or  species  of  style,  viz. :  the  simple 
or  lower,  the  grand  or  higher,  and  the  middle. 

83.  The  Simple  or  Lower  Style. — It  is  characteristic  of 
this  style,  that,  without  disregarding  the  difference  of  written 
and  spoken  discourse,  it  imitates  the  conversational  language 
of  cultivated  society.  It  employs  familiar  words  and  idiomatic 
expressions ;  prefers  the  figures  of  speech  that  give  distinctness 
to  the  more  brilliant  and  passionate ;  the  sentences  are  not  often 
very  long  or  complicated,  and  are  loose  or  mixed,  seldom  peri- 
odic; rapidity  and  energetic  condensation  are  foreign  to  it; 
some  degree  of  diffuseness  characterizes  it,  but  not  unnecessary 
wordiness.  It  is  appropriate  to  discourses  that  address  chiefly 
the  understanding,  but  is  not  adapted  to  move  the  feelings  and 
passions.  It  is  employed  in  narrating  the  events  and  describ- 
ing the  objects  of  ordinary  life,  and  in  communicating  instruc- 
tion and  information. 

The  simple  style  ranges  from  the  plain  style,  which  rejects 


Sec.  84  DIVISION  OF  STYLE.  159 

all  ornament,  allows  many  negligences,  and  approaches  most 
nearly  to  the  language  of  conversation — to  the  elegant.  It  is 
susceptible  of  a  high  degree  of  beauty ;  accurate  knowledge, 
clear  thinking,  correct  taste,  and  social  refinement  impart  to  it 
a  classic  elegance.  The  ideas  are  conveyed  so  clearly  and  with 
such  an  absence  of  effort,  that  the  reader's  attention  is  not 
attracted  to  the  mode  of  expression,  and  he  is  apt  to  imagine 
that  he  would  have  employed  the  same.  The  difficulty  of 
writing  in  such  a  style  is  knowrn  only  to  those  who  attempt  it. 
The  extremes  to  be  shunned  are:  1st.  Dryness  and  lan- 
guor, arising  from  the  use  of  abstract  and  commonplace  ideas 
and  language,  formal  definitions  and  divisions,  slovenly  sen- 
tences, etc.  2d.  Coarseness  and  vulgarity,  into  which  many 
are  betrayed  by  false  notions  of  familiarity. 

84.  The  Grand  or  Higher  Style. — This  style  is  appropriate 
when  treating  of  the  most  elevated  subjects  of  thought,  and  of 
objects  that  concern  the  most  important  interests  of  individuals 
and  communities.  It  supposes  that  the  writer  is  affected  to  an 
extraordinary  degree  by  the  object,  that  he  is  inflamed  with 
enthusiasm  for  what  he  believes  to  be  great  and  good,  or  with 
moral  indignation  at  some  wrong. 

The  adequate  expression  of  the  noblest  principles  of  our  nat- 
ure, when  affected  by  elevated  objects,  will  necessarily  possess 
force,  grandeur,  and  sublimity.  These  qualities  may  be  exhib- 
ited in  various  ways.  Great  thoughts  are  often  clothed  in  a 
majestic  simplicity ;  sometimes  the  resources  of  language  are 
employed  to  present  them  with  a  fullness  and  magnificence 
that  will  cany  captive  both  mind  and  heart.  The  noblest  and 
most  expressive  words  are  chosen ;  the  boldest  figures  are  em- 
ployed— as,  personification,  vision,  sermocination.  The  sen- 
tences are  sometimes  brief  and  pregnant,  conveying  the  thought 
in  a  form  that  seizes  the  attention  and  compels  the  reader  to 
reflect  on  it ;  at  other  times  they  are  flowing  and  rhythmical. 

From  the  nature  of  this  style,  as  the  expression  of  extraordi- 
nary excitement  of  the  imagination  and  emotions,  it  is  adapted 
to  but  a  few  classes  of  composition,  and  only  to  subjects  of  great 


160  STYLE.  Sec.  84 

importance.  Further,  it  can  not  pervade  an  entire  discourse, 
but  will  be  confined  to  the  portions  in  which  thought  and 
passion  reach  their  highest  stage.  It  can  not  be  employed 
unless  the  hearer  or  reader  is  in  sympathy  with  the  speaker  or 
writer. 

The  faults  to  which  this  style  is  liable  are  extravagance,  ex- 
aggeration ;  the  use  of  hollow,  conventional  phraseology,  which 
is  supposed  to  give  stateliness  and  pathos ;  the  excessive  use  of 
figurative  language,  enervating  and  obscuring  the  ideas  instead 
of  enforcing  them — faults  which  spring  from  the  want  of  knowl- 
edge, taste,  and  sincerity. 

85,  The  Middle  Style. — This  holds  a  position  between  the 
simple  and  the  grand  style ;  it  is  the  transition  from  the  one  to 
the  other,  and  combines  some  of  the  characteristics  of  both.     It 
resembles  the  simple  in  striving  to  communicate  truth  to  the 
understanding  with  clearness,  arid  resembles  the  grand  in  aim- 
ing to  influence  the  feelings  and  passions.     It  is  bolder  and 
more  profuse  in  the  employment  of  figures  and  the  various  em- 
phatic verbal  forms,  than  the  simple  style  j  but  does  not  use 
those  appropriate  to  intense  feeling,  which  are  found  in  the 
grand. 

This  style  is  employed  in  all  compositions  intended  not  only 
to  inform  and  convince,  but  at  the  same  time  to  move  the  feel- 
ings and  passions.  Its  character  varies  with  the  predominance 
of  one  or  other  of  these  ends.  When  instruction  and  conviction 
are  predominant,  it  approaches  the  lower  style  ;  when  influen- 
cing the  feelings  is  the  main  object,  it  partakes  more  of  the 
character  of  the  higher. 

86.  Caution. — The  student  is  to  be  cautioned  against  sup- 
posing that  a  discourse  is  necessarily  confined  to  one  of  these 
kinds  of  style.     This  erroneous  opinion  has  been  fostered  by 
the  prevailing  custom  of  perusing  extracts  from  authors  instead 
of  entire  works,  and  thus  of  judging  of  the  whole  from  a  mere 
fragment.     All  three  styles  may  be  found  in  the  same  dis- 
course.    With  a  genuine  writer,  the  thoughts  control  and  shape 


Sec.  87  DIVISION  OF  STYLE.  161 

the  language;  the  style  will  be  simple  when  the  appeal  is 
mainly  to  the  understanding,  and  the  other  powers  are  called 
into  but  moderate  activity  ;  grand  when  intensity  and  elevation 
of  passion  and  emotion  are  to  be  expressed ;  and  the  middle 
style  will  be  adopted  when  the  aim  is  to  call  into  harmonious, 
vigorous  activity,  understanding,  feeling,  and  passion. 

87.  The  application  of  the  principles  of  General  Rheto- 
ric.— The  divisions  just  given  are  too  indefinite  to  afford  much 
assistance  in  original  composition  and  criticism.  Before  the 
student  can  learn  to  discriminate  between  the  different  kinds  of 
style,  he  must  become  familiar  with  the  application  of  the  prin- 
ciples of  general  Khetoric  to  discourse  as  determined  by  its 
matter  and  aim. 

This  is  the  subject  of  the  two  remaining  parts,  which,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  the  portion  now  completed,  may  be  considered 
as  constituting  Special  or  Applied  Rhetoric. 

It  treats  of: 

1.  The  Elements,  or  Elementary  Forms  of  Discourse. 

2.  The  Principal  Forms  of  Prose. 


.  14 


PART   III. 


THE  ELEMENTARY  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE. 


88.  Preliminary. — The  objects  of  thought  can  be  reduced  to 
two  classes  5  viz.,  individual  objects  arid  general  notions. 

Individual  objects  are  of  two  kinds.  Either  they  are  simul- 
taneous wholes ;  i.  e.,  those  whose  parts  exist  at  the  same  time, 
whether  individual  things  existing,  or  conceived  to  exist  in 
space;  as,  this  tree,  house,  etc.;  or  particular  mental  states 
and  qualities  of  which  we  get  a  knowledge  by  consciousness ; — 
or  they  are  successive  wholes ;  i.  e.,  those  whose  parts  are  not 
presented  as  existing  at  one  time,  but  which  arise  in  successive 
periods  of  time ;  as,  for  example,  a  storm,  a  battle,  the  life  of  a 
man — in  general,  all  changes  in  the  internal  and  the  external 
world. 

General  notions  are  formed  by  comparison  and  generaliza- 
tion ;  they  have  no  one  object  precisely  corresponding  to  them, 
but  are  applicable  to  an  indefinite  number  of  objects;  as,  tree, 
man,  house. 

We  may  consider  individual  and  general  notions  in  them- 
selves, or  we  may  endeavor  to  show  that  two  or  more  of  them 
are  related. 

What  are  the  Elementary  Forms  of  Discourse? — Corre- 
sponding to  these  distinctions  we  have,  as  the  elements  or  ele- 
mentary forms  of  discourse : 

1.  Description,  or  the  exhibition  in  language  of  the  parts  of 
a  simultaneous  whole. 

2.  Narration,  or  the  exhibition  of  the  parts  of  a  successive 
whole. 

(162) 


Sec.  90  DESCRIPTION.  163 

.'_>.  Exposition,  consisting  m  the  explication  of  general  no- 
tions and  propositions  formed  from  them. 

4.  Argumentation,  by  which  the  truth  or  falsehood  of  a 
proposition  is  evinced. 

There  can  be  no  connected  discourse  without  one  or  more  of 
these  forms.  In  a  composition  in  which  several  of  them  enter, 
one  will  predominate,  giving  character  to  the  whole. 


CHAPTER  I. 

DESCRIPTION. 

89.  Definition  and  objects  of  Description, — A  description 
is  the  exhibition  in  language  of  the  coexistent  parts  and  quali- 
ties of  an  object  of  sense,  whether  real  or  imaginary. 

Only  complex  objects  are  capable  of  description ;  purely  sim- 
ple objects  or  qualities,  as  a  simple  color,  can  not  be  described. 
The  objects  of  description  are  all  complex  objects  of  perception, 
such  as  natural  products,  creations  of  art,  landscapes,  states  of 
mind,  characters  of  individuals  and  classes,  etc. 

'90.  Requisites  of  a  good  Description. — The  aim  of  a  de- 
scription is  to  enable  the  reader  to  form  an  image  of  the  object 
corresponding  as  nearly  as  possible  to  that  in  the  mind  of  the 
writer.  Its  requisites  are:  1.  Truth. — It  must  not  only  be 
free  from  self-contradiction,  but  the  features  must  be  those  of 
the  actual  object;  the  representation  must  harmonize  with  the 
reality. 

2.  Completeness  (opposed  to  inadequacy  or  mutilation). — 
The  essential  features  must  be  given;  what  subordinate  points 
should  be  mentioned  will  be  determined  by  circumstances. 
Nothing  should  be  omitted  that  will  promote  the  aim  of  the 
writer. 
$»  Unity. — The  mere  enumeration  of  single  traits  does  not 


164  ELEMENTARY  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE.      Sec.  90 

constitute  a  description.  The  parts  must  be  connected  in  such 
a  inanner  as  to  afford  a  distinct  image  of  a  single  object,  so  that 
it  can  be  recognized  and  discriminated  from  other  objects. 

4.  Vivacity. — The  object  must  be  described  as  it  appears  to 
the  senses.     The  degree  of  vivacity  differs  in  the  various  kinds 
of  description.     The  general  rule  for  all  is,  to  reject  what  is 
abstract  and  vague,  and  to  seek  what  is  determinate  and  par- 
ticular. 

5.  Brevity. — The  mind  speedily  becomes  wearied  with  the 
effort  to  combine  and  retain  a  number  of  qualities ;  in  descrip- 
tion, more  than  in  any  other  form  of  discourse,  brevity  is  indis- 
pensable. 

91.  Difficulty  of  the  art  of  Description.— The  art  of  rep- 
resenting an  object  in  language  is  a  difficult  one.     The  chief 
causes  of  the  difficulty  are:     1.  The  number  of  qualities  be- 
longing to  an  individual  object  is  greater  than  it  is  possible  to 
comprise  in  a  description.     To  attempt  to  give  to  it  the  fullness 
of  an  actual  perception  would  lead  to  an  accumulation  of  de- 
tails that  could  not  be  retained  in  the  memory  and  united  in  a 
single  image.     2.  The  properties  and  qualities  of  the  object  co- 
exist and  are  presented  to  sense  as  parts  of  a  simultaneous 
whole,  whereas  when  represented  in- language  they  are  exhib- 
ited in  succession.     Hence,  to  succeed  in  this  art,  great  skill  is 
requisite  to  analyze  the  object,  and  to  select  and  combine  the 
separate  traits. 

92.  Rules  of  Description. — 1.   The  first  rule  is:    Deter- 
mine the  point  of  view  from  tchieh  the  description  is  to  be 
made.     This  rule  is  laid  down  first,  as  it  is  only  by  complying 
with  it  that  we  can  bring  the  subject,  otherwise  illimitable,  into 
bounds,  and  decide  what  topics  are  to  be  selected  and  Avliat 
order  is  to  be  pursued.     The  same  object  admits  of  being  de- 
scribed in  a  variety  of  ways  according  to  the  occasion,  the  end 
to  be  realized,  etc.     When  the  aim  is  merely  to  enable  the  un- 
derstanding to  distinguish  one  object  from  another,  the  descrip- 
tion approaches  to  definition,  and,  both  in  the  matter  selected 


Sec.  92  DESCRIPTION.  105 

and  in  the  mode  of  treatment,  difters  from  the  more  elevated 
forms  which  appeal  directly  to  the  imagination.  Among  these 
there  is  also  a  difference.  A  description  may  be  objective, 
i.  #.,  may  aim  to  present  a  vivid  image  of  the  object  as  it  is ; 
or  it  may  be  subjective,  i.  £.,  aim  to  exhibit  the  object  together 
with  the  emotions  which  it  excited  in  the  mind  of  the  writer. 
Subjective  description  occurs  most  frequently  in  poetry  and 
eloquence. 

2.  Select  traits  that  are  characteristic,  i.  e.,  such  as  give  a 
clear  and  correct  impression  of  the  real  nature  of  the  object ; 
interesting  either  in  themselves  or  in  their  relation  to  the  ob- 
ject; determinate,  concrete,  as  opposed  to  whatever  is  vague 
and  abstract.  Care  must  be  taken  to  choose  qualities  that 
blend  readily  into  one  image ;  out  of  a  successive  presentation 
of  parts  the  imagination  retains  only  such  as  coalesce  with 
what  follows  without  losing  their  individual  characteristics. 

o.  Aroid  accumulating  too  many  details.  The  mind  can 
retain  but  a  few,  and  when  the  attention  is  overtasked  the  im- 
pression becomes  feeble  and  obscure.  The  force  of  description 
depends  more  upon  the  character  of  the  traits  selected  than 
upon  their  number.  One  striking  circumstance  will  often  bring 
an  entire  scene  before  the  mind  with  greater  vividness  than  a 
minute  enumeration  of  the  details.  Carlyle  says  on  this  sub- 
ject: 

"On  what  quality  of  observing,  or  of  style  in  describing,  does 
this  intense  pictorial  power  depend!  Often  a  slight  circum- 
stance contributes  curiously  to  the  result ;  some  little,  and  per- 
haps to  appearance  accidental,  feature  is  presented;  a  light 
gleam  which  instantaneously  excites  the  mind,  and  urges  it  to 
complete  the  picture  and  evolve  the  meaning  thereof  for  itself. 
l>y  critics  such  light  gleams  and  their  magical  influence  have 
been  frequently  noted ;  but  the  power  to  produce  such,  to  select 
such  features  as  will  produce  them,  is  generally  treated  as  a 
knack  or  trick  of  trade,  a  secret  for  4  being  graphic';  whereas 
those  magical  feats  are,  in  truth,  rather  inspirations ;  and  the 
gift  of  performing  them,  which  acts  unconsciously,  without  fore- 
thought, and  as  if  by  nature  alone,  is  properly  a  genius  for 


166  ELEMENTARY  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE.      Sec.  92 

description.  One  grand  invaluable  secret  there  is,  however, 
which  includes  all  the  rest,  and,  what  is  comfortable,  lies  clearly 
in  every  man's  power — to  have  an  open,  loving  heart,  and  what 

follows  from  the  possession  of  such.     Truly  it  has  been  said 

emphatically  in  these  days  ought  it  to  be  repeated — a  loving 
heart  is  the  beginning  of  all  knowledge.  This  it  is  that  opens 
the  whole  mind,  quickens  every  faculty  of  the  intellect  to  do  its 
fit  work — that  of  knowing,  and,  therefrom  by  pure  consequence, 
of  vividly  uttering  forth.  Other  secret  of  being  graphic  is 
there  none  worth  having ;  but  this  is  an  all-sufficient  one." 

93.  Disposition  of  details. — The  features  selected  must  be 
arranged  in  a  natural  order,  so  that  the  description  may  corre- 
spond to  the  object  described.  In  a  large  class  of  natural  and 
artificial  products  the  order  is  given  with  the  objects,  so  that 
there  is  very  little  room  for  choice  with  reference  "to  the  parts 
with  which  the  description  shall  begin.  In  complex  subjects 
greater  liberty  is  given.  We  may  give  first  a  general  state- 
ment of  the  class  to  which  the  object  belongs ;  the  uses  to 
which  it  is  applied ;  its  outline  and  size.  We  may  then  de- 
scend to  particulars,  dividing  the  whole  into  large  masses,  and 
then  giving  the  details  belonging  to  each.  The  proper  relation 
of  the  parts  should  be  observed ;  description  is  not  a  bare  enu- 
meration of  separate  traits ;  the  parts  should  cohere — the  pre- 
ceding should  be  easily  retained  in  the  memory  and  connect 
readily  with  what  follows,  and  thus  each  part  illustrate  and 
support  the  others,  'and  all  combine  into  one  distinct  image. 

In  describing  the  social  condition  of  a  people — the  morals, 
institutions,  and  the  like — still  greater  liberty  is  allowed.  The 
main  object  is  to  afford  a  distinct  general  view  of  the  whole 
complex  subject;  the  process  requires  skill  in  logical  division. 
Excessive  subdivision  is  to  be  guarded  against,  as  it  renders 
the  obtaining  of  such  a  general  view  difficult,  if  not  impos- 
sible. 

When  an  object  is  to  be  described  that  can  not  be  appre- 
hended in  a  single  view,  but  the  parts  of  which  are  presented 
in  succession,  as  in  an  extensive  landscape,  the  description  may 


Sec.  95  DESCRIPTION.  167 

follow  the  order  of  presentation.  In  such  cases  it  takes  sonic- 
thing  of  the  form  of  a  narrative,  and  has  a  higher  degree  of 
vivacity  than  the  ordinary  form  of  description. 

94.  Auxiliaries. — The  vivacity  of  a  description  is  promoted 
in  several  ways.     The  object  may  be  compared  with  similar  or 
with  dissimilar  objects  ;  associated  circumstances  may  be  given, 
or  associated  thoughts,  feelings,  memories ;  the  writer  may  in- 
terpret the  outward  signs,  mingle  inferences  with  the  descrip- 
tion, and  in  various  ways  put  the  reader  in  possession  of  all 
that  is  nearly  or  remotely  connected  with  the  subject. 

Rules  of  expression. — The  expression  in  language  varies 
with  the  nature  and  end  of  the  description.  The  naturalist  and 
orator  adopt  a  very  different  style  in  delineating  the  same  ob- 
ject. The  effect  is  destroyed  by  employing  vague  and  abstract 
terms ;  in  all  cases  the  writer  should  aim  to  particularize  and 
individualize.  Metonymy  and  synecdoche  both  contribute  to 
this  end,  and  are  of  frequent  use ;  likewise  epithets  suggesting 
comprehensive  details,  points  of  resemblance,  etc.  Stereotyped 
forms  of  expressions  render  a  description  feeble  and  common- 
place, and  should  be  unconditionally  rejected ;  novelty  is  indis- 
pensable to  interest  in  this  kind  of  discourse.  Brevity,  so  far 
as  it  is  compatible  with  completeness,  must  also  be  studied. 
Xo  class  of  compositions  is  more  liable  to  become  tedious. 

95.  Description  of  natural  and  artificial  products. — The 
objects  included  under  this  head  are  the  products  of  art,  as 
buildings,  machines,  etc.,  and  natural  products,  both  organic 
and  inorganic.     The  aim  is  to  exhibit  the  peculiarities  of  the 
object  so  as  to  enable  the  reader  to  discriminate  it  from  other 
objects.     It  embraces : 

1.  A  general  notion  or  description,  which  serves  to  locate 
the  object. 

2.  A  particular  description,  giving  the  characteristic  quali- 
ties of  the  object,  its  uses,  etc. 

Xo  general  scheme  can  be  given  for  inorganic  substances. 


168  ELEMENTARY  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE.      Sec.  95 

Some  of  the  topics  to  be  employed  are :  their  genus,  composi- 
tion, appearance  (form,  color,  etc.),  locality,  uses. 

The  topics  for  the  description  of  an  organic  substance  are : 
ik1  partition  (main  parts),  characteristics  of  individual  parts, 
circumstances  of  place,  uses,  division  or  different  species,  ap- 
pearance (form,  size,  color,  etc.). 

In  describing  animals,  we  must  give  the  physical  marks,  and 
also  the  inward  marks,  such  as  intelligence,  susceptibility  of 
education,  relation  to  man,  mode  of  life,  and  similar  quali- 
ties. 

The  marks  selected  should  be  essential  and  characteristic, 
and  should  be  so  grouped  as  to  bring  the  related  qualities 
together. 

Physical  appearances. — The  description  may  be  either  of 
scenery  or  of  phenomena  of  nature.  The  former  embraces 
landscapes  of  greater  or  less  extent;  The  main  points  to  be 
noticed  are  the  relative  position  of  the  locality ;  its  length, 
breadth  ;  its  main  divisions  with  their  subdivisions,  noteworthy 
circumstances  and  features.  When  the  scene  is  an  extensive 
one,  that  can  not  be  taken  in  at  one  view,  the  points  will  be 
presented  in  succession,  and  those  dwelt  upon  which  give  the 
most  lively  perception  of  the  scene.  To  succeed  in  description 
of  this  kind,  a  writer  must  have  the  power  to  select  from  the 
many  objects  presented  to  him  those  which  will  make  the 
strongest  impression  on  the  imagination  and  feelings. 

The  description  of  natural  phenomena — as  of  a  sunset,  sun- 
rise, thunder-storm — is  nearly  related  to  narration.  AVe  have 
here  a  passing  phenomenon  connected  with  a  particular  locality. 
The  phenomenon  can  be  grasped  as  a  whole  only  by  taking  in 
the  changes  as  they  occur.  The  scheme  for  such  a  description 
corresponds  to  that  for  the  narration  of  an  event.  It  contains  : 

1.  The  preceding  circumstances,  including  the  cause,  occa- 
sion, indications,  and  the  like. 

2.  The  beginning,  middle,  and  end  of  the  phenomenon. 

3.  Its  consequences,   general  and   special,   immediate  and 
remote. 


Sec,  96  DESCRIPTION.  109 

In  both  these  forms  of  description  great  vivacity  is  indispen- 
sable. Particulars  that  address  the  senses  should  be  brought 
forward;  a  single  striking  feature  that  may  be  expressed  in  a 
•ingle  word  is  often  more  effective  than  an  extended  enumera- 
tion of  details.  Personification,  metaphor,  synecdoche,  and 
metonymy  are  freely  used.  The  unity  of  descriptions  of  this 
(lass  consists  in  a  great  measure  in  the  impression  made  upon 
the  feedings,  whether  joyous,  serious,  gloomy,  sublime.  The 
nature  of  the  emotions  to  be  awakened  by  the  entire  description 
must  be  kept  in  view,  and  such  characteristics  selected  as  are 
suitable  to  them  ;  what  would  disturb  the  harmony  of  the  im-^- 
pressiori  should  be  omitted. 

$£-.  Mental  states, — The  states  of  thought,  feeling,  and  de- 
sire are  described  by  giving  the  class  to  which  they  belong  with 
the  specific  difference,  and  adding,  when  greater  fullness  is  re- 
quired, (1)  the  causes  producing,  the  occasion  on  which  they 
arise,  their  object  and  end  ;  (2)  the  mode  in  which  they  manifest 
themselves,  as  by  words,  gestures,  the  countenance,  actions ; 
(3)  their  influence  and  effects ;  (4)  circumstances  modifying, 
checking,  exciting  them  ;  (5)  their  perversions  5  (6)  comparison 
with  cognate  and  opposite  states. 

Characters. — The  description  of  a  character  consists  in  giv- 
ing a  faithful,  graphic  delineation  of  the  permanent,  distinctive 
qualities  of  which  it  is  composed.  It  is  of  importance  in  his- 
tory, biography,  and  oratory.  The  subjects  may  be  taken  from 
real  life,  from  history,  or  from  fiction. 

In  this  kind  of  description  the  following  points  are  to  be  ob- 
served : 

1.  It  should  embrace  both  the  natural  and  acquired  pecul- 
iarities. In  every  character  there  are  certain  predominant  ten- 
dencies, on  which  the  others  depend,  from  which  they  proceed, 
and  which  modify  and  explain  the  rest.  These  fundamental 
qualities,  as  they  are  the  central  principles  of  activity,  are  to  be 
selected  first,  and  made  prominent  throughout.  The  descrip- 

Rhet.  15 


170  ELEMENTARY  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE.      Sec,  96 

tion   must   embrace   the  intellectual  peculiarities,  the  moral 
qualities,  and  temperament. 

2.  The  external  circumstances  and  relations  which  influence 
the  formation  of  character — such  as  nationality,  religion,  civili- 
zation, education,  etc.,  should  be  carefully  considered.     The 
vicissitudes  in  the  life  of  the  person  should  be  mentioned  when 
they  throw  light  upon  the  character.     The  difference  between 
biography,  which  narrates  the  events  of  a  life,  and  delineation 
of  character,  which  exhibits  permanent  traits,  must  be  kept 
constantly  in  view. 

3.  The  various  qualities  must  be  exhibited  in  their  relation 
to  each  other.     No  character  is  absolutely  simple,  i.  e.,  gov- 
erned by  one  principle  exclusively;  it  is  the  result  of  a  combi- 
nation of  principles  which  act  and  react  on  each  other.     The 
qualities  must  be  shown  as  thus  modifying  and  modified ;  the 
dark  and  bright  sides  should  be  exhibited  in  contrast  with  each 
other ;   the  different  degrees  of  worthiness  and  dignity  of  the 
various  principles  should  be  shown,  as  according  to  the  pre- 
dominance of  one  or  another  set  of  principles,  a  character  is 
pronounced  good  or  bad,  noble  or  base,  refined  or  coarse ;  care 
must  be  taken  not  to  present  traits  severed  from  those  with 
which  they  are  intimately  connected,  and  without  which  they 
convey  a  false  impression  j  where  there  is  apparent  contradic- 
tion, it  must  be  removed,  and  the  consistency  of  the  character 
made  apparent. 

4.  The  description  of  a  character  seeks  to  give  the  inward 
principles  from  which  outward  acts  proceed,  and  which  can  be 
recognized  only  by  their  outward  manifestations.     It  is  neces- 
sary, for  the- sake  of  clearness  and  vividness,  to  introduce  the 
modes  by  which  the  internal  principles  manifest  themselves ; 
to  give  the  words  and  deeds  of  the  subject,  and  the  spheres  of 
life  in  which  the  qualities  have  been  exerted;  as  in  the  family, 
society,  profession. 

5.  The  character  may  be  compared  with  other  characters 
either  similar  or  different.     A  lengthened  comparison  of  two 
characters  is  called  a  parallel.     It  may  begin  with  a  summary 
of  what  may  be  said  in  general  of  the  two,  and' then  proceed  to 


Sec.  97  NARRATION.  171 

indicate  what  was  common  to  the  two,  as  to  time,  place,  fam- 
ily, and  other  conditioning  circumstances,  and  then  how  they 
dillered  in  respect  to  the  same.  They  may  then  be  compared 
as  to  the  points  of  resemblance  and  difference,  as  to  character, 
plans,  labors,  the  results  of  their  labors. 

General  characters. — Instead  of  sketches  of  individual  char- 
acters, we  may  have  what  are  called  general  characters.  These 
arc1  delineations  of  the  peculiarities  of  a  class  or  profession,  or 
of  the  manifestations  of  some  virtue  or  vice.  They  occur  in 
satiric  poetry  and  in  didactic  prose.  The  faults  to  be  avoided 
are  unnaturalness,  exaggeration,  caricature,  inconsistency. 
The  characters  should  appear  such  as  can  actually  exist,  and 
the  traits  and  actions  be  such  as  harmonize  with  each  other  and 
with  the  central  principle. 


CHAPTER  II. 

NARRATION. 

97.  The  nature  and  aim  of  Narration. — A  narration  is 
the  recital  of  a  consecutive  series  of  incidents  forming  a  single 
transaction.  The  facts  narrated  may  be  either  those  of  the  ex- 
ternal world,  including  physical  phenomena  and  the  actions  of 
intelligent  beings,  or  those  of  the  internal  world — what  one 
thinks,  feels,  desires.  They  may  be  simple,  being  composed  of 
but  a  single  series  of  incidents,  or  complex,  containing  a  variety 
of  subordinate  or  concurrent  incidents. 

Narration  is  the  main  end  of  historical  discourse ;  it  enters 
more  or  less  largely  into  all  classes  of  composition  both  in  prose 
and  poetry.  Its  form  varies  with  the  end  which  the  writer  has 
>--  in  view.  The  simplest  is  that  which  it  receives  when  the  aim 
is  to  give  an  accurate  statement  of  facts  that  will  enable  others 
to  form  a  correct  judgment  of  them,  as  in  official  reports  and  in 
many  business  transactions.  The  higher  forms  are  intended  to 


172  ELEMENTAKY  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE.      Sec.  97 

call  into  activity  the  feelings  and  imagination  ;  these  forms  are 
principally  regarded  in  Rhetoric.  In  many  cases  the  narration 
is  not  an  independent  element  of  a  discourse,  but  is  employed 
merely  as  the  basis  of  an  argument  or  generalization,  or  as  a 
means  of  arousing  the  passions.  In  judicial  eloquence  particu- 
larly, it  is  a  very  important  element.  It  is  also  frequently 
employed  for  didactic  purposes,  as  to  illustrate  and  enforce  a 
(esson  of  prudence,  morality,  or  religion,  as  in  fables,  parables, 


98.  The  selection  of  particulars.  —  The  aim  of  narration 
Oeing  to  exhibit  an  event  as  a  whole,  in  its  rise,  progress,  and 
completion,  it  involves  the  necessity  of  a  careful  selection  of 
the  particulars  that  are  to  be  incorporated  into  it.  The  art  of 
selecting  is  one  of  the  most  indispensable  accomplishments  of  a 
good  narrator.  Those  lacking  this  qualification  do  not  dis- 
criminate between  what  is  essential  and  what  is  not  essential  ; 
they  bring  together  a  crowd  of  particulars,  but  give  no  clear, 
connected  presentation  of  the  subject. 

In  the  process  of  selecting,  the  writer  should  be  governed  by 
the  following  rules  : 

1.  There  is  in  every  event,  however  complex,  one  leading 
fact  of  which  the  others  are  but  the  dependents.  This  must  be 
seized  ;  otherwise  the  narrative  can  not  have  unity.  The  unity 
of  an  action  may  be  in  the  subject  (as  in  biography,  the  person 
whose  life  is  narrated  ;  in  history,  the  particular  nation),  in  the 
place,  or  in  the  end  or  result.  *  The  place  is  of  subordinate  im-' 
portance  5  the  main  thing  to  be  attended  to  is  the  result.  All 
incidents  that  terminate  in  one,  final  event  are  parts  of  one 
whole;  it  is  only  by  reference  to  this  result  that  the  several 
incidents  can  be  explained,  and  their  place  and  importance 
determined. 

2:  All  the  essential  incidents  must  be  given  ;  that  is,  all 
that  are  necessary  to  the  progress  of  the  action.  The  omission 
of  any  of  these  renders  the  narrative  incomplete  and  unintelli- 
gible by  destroying  the  connection  between  the  parts.  If  the 
narrative  contains  only  a  summary  of  the  essential  parts,  it  will 


Sec.  99  NARRATION.  173 

lack  vivacity  and  interest;  it  is  accordingly  necessary  to  am 

plify  them,  and  to  incorporate  whatever  aids  in  imparting  clear- 
ness and  vividness  to  the  recital.  What  is  superfluous  must 
be  omitted,  as  it  but  retards  the  movement  of  the  narration  and 
leads  to  obscurity.  Regard  must  be  had,  as  in  description,  to 
the  relations  of  the  details ;  there  are  some  so  related  to  each 
other  that  if  one  be  given  the  others  must  also  be  given. 
When  this  rule  is  neglected,  the  narrative  becomes  false,  al- 
though the  separate  statements  are  all  true. 

3.  The  end  to  be  accomplished  by  the  narration  must  be  kept 
in  view.     The  same  fact  will  be  related  in  a  different  manner 
in  an  official  report,  in  an  oration,  and  in  a  didactic  treatise. 

4.  The  circumstances  selected  should  interest  us  by  address- 
ing the  imagination  and  feelings.     General  statements  convey 
no  distinct  image,  and  render  a  narration  lifeless ;  it  is  neces- 
sary to  descend  to  particulars,  and  to  present  the  facts  in  as 
concrete  a  form  as  possible.     The  degree  of  interest  depends  on 
the  aim,   and  on  the  nature  of  the  subject  of  the  narrative. 
Where  the  aim  is  merely  to  impart  information,  great  vivacity 
is  not  so  indispensable ;  it  can  not  be  neglected  in  the  higher 
forms  of  narration,  as  in  history  and  eloquence.     Internal  phe- 
nomena— our .  thoughts,  feelings,  and  desires — can  not  be  pre- 
sented so  vividly ;  a  narrative  of  these  is  apt  to  be  tedious ; 
whereas  when  they  are  exhibited  as  manifesting  themselves  in 
outward  deeds,  the  narrative  can  be  made  highly  interesting. 

99.  Disposition  of  the  incidents. — The  separate  incidents 
are,  in  the  next  place,  to  be  arranged  in  an  order  that  will 
secure  a  continuous  movement  of  the  narrative  towards  the 
grand  result. 

1.  As  a  general  rule,  the  order  of  time  is  to  be  observed. 
But  we  can  not  adhere  strictly  to  this  order  in  all  cases — par- 
ticularly when  the  event  is  complex,  and  involves  several 
parallel  series  of  incidents.  Great  skill  is  then  required  to 
connect  the  parts,  and  preserve  the  unity  and  continuity  of  the 
narrative. 

1'.  A  narration  should  do  more  than  simply  exhibit  incidents 


174  ELEMENTARY  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE.       Sec.  99 

in  succession ;  it  should  exhibit  one  as  arising  out  of  another, 
and  all  as  combining  to  produce  one  definite  result.  It  should 
thus  account  for  the  event  and  render  apparent  its  necessity. 

3.  When  the  principal  event  has  a  number  of  subordinates,, 
care  must  be  taken  to  preserve  the  prominence  of  the  principal.' 
This  is  effected  by  the  position  given  it,  the  fullness  of  its  de- 
tails, and  style  in  which  it  is  presented.     We  must  not  permit 
a  subordinate  point  to  supplant  the  main  one  by  a  too  extended 
treatment  of  it,  or  by  superior  vividness  of  style.     The  transi- 
tions from  the  main  to. the  subordinate  parts  should  (particu- 
larly in  long  narratives)  be  distinctly  marked. 

4.  Avoid,  as  far  as  possible,  shifting  the  scene.     The  need- 
less transfer  from  one  place  to  another  is  a  strain  upon  the  at- 
tention, and  interrupts  the  continuity  of  the  action.     So  also 
with  the  actors ;   it  is  a  great  advantage  to  have  one  central 
character  around  whom  the  events  may  be  gathered. 

5.  When  the  narrative  is  a  long  one,  and  particularly  when 
there  is  a  break  in  it,  the  labor  of  comprehending  and  remem- 
bering is  lightened  by  giving  a  summary  of  what  precedes. 
The  summary  contains  only  the  main  points  and  the  general 
result,  with  the  omission  of  the  details.     It  serves  to  recall 
what  has  been  gone  over,  and  prepares  the  reader  to  resume 
the  thread  of  the  story. 

100.  The  parts  of  a  Narration. — The  parts  into  which  a 
narration  may  be  distributed  are : 

The  introduction. — The  object  of  the  introduction  is  to 
awaken  the  reader's  interest  in  the  subject,  to  indicate  the 
point  of  view  from  which  the  fact  is  contemplated  by  the  writer, 
or,  in  general,  to  make  the  reader  acquainted  with  whatever  is 
necessary  to  a  correct  understanding  of  the  course  of  events. 
It  may  be  a  summary  of  such  preceding  events  as  have  a  direct 
bearing  upon  the  one  to  be  narrated ;  a  general  description,  or 
the  statement  of  a  general  principle.  It  is  sometimes  expe- 
dient to  exhibit  the  result  or  the  consequences  of  the  fact,  and 
then  proceed  to  the  narrative  of  the  events  which  led  to  it. 
The  introduction  should  be  brief,  simple,  and  should  throw  light 


Sec.  100  NARRATION.  175 

upon  the  subject.  It  is  a  common  fault  in  giving  preceding 
events  to  go  back  to  too  remote  a  point. 

E.qtoaition. — Every  action  must  have  a  beginning,  middle, 
and  end.  The  exposition  is  that  part  of  the  narration  which 
gives  the  beginning  of  the  action.  It  sets  forth  the  various 
circumstances  and  relations  in  which  the  action  took  its  rise. 
The  topics  to  be  used  are :  the  cause  of  the  event,  which  in- 
cludes the  incidents,  institutions,  circumstances  which  led  to  it; 
as  also  the  character  arid  motives  of  the  actors;  the  place  in 
which  it  occurred ;  and  the  time  or  period  at  which  it  happened. 
The  characteristics  of  the  time,  its  tendencies  and  civilization, 
should  be  mentioned. 

Narrative  proper,  or  the  plot. — This  contains  the  various 
circumstances,  the  complication  of  which  forms  the  transaction 
to  be  narrated.  It  exhibits  the  incidents  in  the  order  and  man- 
ner in  which  they  were  called  forth,  and  the  causes  operating 
to  produce  them.  The  means  employed  and  the  manner  of 
employing  them  must  be  stated ;  the  circumstances  that  either 
hindered  or  facilitated  the  progress  of  the  event  should  in  all 
cases  be  prominently  set  forth. 

Conclusion. — The  conclusion  contains  the  final  result  of  the 
action ;  that  to  which  all  the  preceding  parts  tended,  and  in 
which  they  are  consummated.  The  expectation  of  the  reader 
has  been  directed  to  this  point  during  the  entire  narration ;  it 
should  satisfy  expectation,  and  should  not  be  so  long  as  to  cause 
attention  to  flag. 

Consequences. — It  is  often  appropriate  to  add  a  statement  of 
the  consequences,  immediate  and  remote,  of  the  action  on  the 
agents  and  on  others. 

Reflections. — Reflections  are  often  an  important  part  of  a 
narrative.  The  writer  may  give  an  estimate  of  the  character, 
importance,  and  worth  of  the  action.  Its  nature,  the  motives 
leading  to  it,  the  means  employed,  the  manner  of  doing  it,  are 
all  taken  into  consideration,  and  tested  as  to  their  conformity 
to  law,  morality,  and  piety ;  or  he  may  compare  it  with  similar 
events,  or  its  opposites ;  or  he  may  draw  from  it  general  prin- 
ciples and  practical  lessons.  Whatever  the  character  of  the 


176  ELEMENTARY  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE.     Sec,  100 

reflections,  they  must  be  subordinate  to  the  narrative,  arise 
naturally  from  it,  and  be  neither  in  matter  nor  tone  discordant 
with  the  subject. 


CHAPTEB   III. 

EXPOSITION. 

101.   Exposition  defined;  its  objects  and  aim. — Exposi-/j 
tion  is  the  explanation  of  notions  and  propositions  formed  from// 
notions.     The  term  notion  is  here  used  in  its  technical  sense  to 
denote  a  general  idea  of  the  point  or  points  in  which  a  number 
of  objects  coincide.     Its  characteristics  are  : 

1.  It  contains  one  or  more  attributes  or  qualities,  and  applies 
to  a  number  of  individuals  or  classes.     Thus  the  notion  animal 
designates  the  qualities  organism,  life,  sensation,  voluntary  mo- 
tion ;  these  marks  or  attributes  form  the  intension  or  depth  of 
the  notion.     It  applies  to  many  classes  of  objects  that  agree  in 
possessing  these  qualities ;  as,  lion,  horse,  dog,  etc.     This  con- 
stitutes its  extension  or  breadth.     Motions  vary  greatly  witli 
respect  to  their  depth  and  breadth.     Some  are  simple,  contain- 
ing but  a  single  attribute  ;  others,  complex,  involving  a  num- 
ber of  qualities  ;  others  again  are  very  broad  or  general,  includ- 
ing a  great  variety  of  classes;  while  others  are  limited,  con- 
taining but  few  classes,  or  it  may  be  only  individuals. 

2.  The  combination  of  the  marks  or  attributes  in  a  notion  is 
not  arbitrary,  but  corresponds  to  the  real  nature  of  the  object 
to  which  it  is  applied. 

3.  The  notion  is  expressed  in  language  by  an  arbitrary 
symbol. 

From  their  nature  it  is  apparent  that  notions  are  peculiarly 
liable  to  obscurity.  The  marks  or  attributes  may  not  be  clearly 
present  to  the  mind;  essential  qualities  maybe  omitted;  quali- 
ties not  belonging  to  it  may  be  introduced ;  the  essential  4* 
non-essential  may  be  confounded:  from  any  of  these  causeP 


Sec.  103  EXPOSITION.  177 

notion  nrny  be  wanting  in  distinctness,  completeness,  and  ac- 
curacy.    The  aim  of  exposition  is  to  guard  against  all  these?   If 
defects,  and  to  imnart  to  our  knowledge  clearness,  fullness,  and  I 
order.     In  the  exposition  of  a  notion  the  points  to  be  noticed 
are:  the  name  by  which  it  is  expressed;  the  notion  itself;  its 
relation  to  other  notions. 

102.  Verbal  explication. — The  verbal  explication  of  a  no- 
tion includes  several  processes : 

1.  Give  the  etymology  of  the  word  ;  i.  e.,  its  origin,  deriva- 
tion, and  composition.  This  is  necessary  when  the  word  is 
foreign,  or  compound,  or  used  in  a  derivative  or  figurative 
sense.  It  is  frequently  a  means  of  discovering  its  signification, 
and  of  precision  in  its  use.  It  brings  the  concrete  idea  of  the 
radical  before  the  mind,  and  suggests  the  analogy  on  which 
the  use  of  the  word  is  founded.  By  this  means  what  was  but- 
a  lifeless  symbol  is  made  a  picture  that  represents  the  idea  with 
vividness.  Let  one  take  such  words  as  precipitate,  convert, 
tribulation,  and  many  others  which  are  vague  and  abstract j  and 
observe  what  force  is  given  to  them  when  their  primary  mean- 
ing is  ascertained. 

12.  Give  a  history  of  the  changes  in  the  form  and  significa- 
tion of  the  word.  In  scientific  works  this  is  often  very  impor- 
tant. 

3.  Give  the  equivalent  terms,  or  synonyms.     These  do  not 
define  the  word ;  if  they  are  better  known  than  the  term  to  be 
explained,  they  suggest  the  sense,  but,  in  most  cases,  only 
vaguely. 

4.  Kesolve  the  ambiguity  of  the  term.     The  various  mean- 
ings of  an  ambiguous  term  ought  to  be  given  before  attempt- 
ing to  define  it;  it  is  thus  separated  from  the  notions  with 
which  it  is  liable  to  be  confounded.     See  Sec.  47,  3. 

103.  Logical  explication. — The  logical  explication  of  a  no- 
tion consists  in  analyzing  it,  first,  as  to  its  depth,  or  intension, 
and,  secondly,  as  to  its  breadth,  or  extension;  i.  e.,  in  defining 
and  dividing  it. 


178  ELEMENTAKY  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE.     Sec.  103 

Definition, — Definition  is  concerned  with  the  intension  of  a 
notion  ;  it  is  a  brief,  precise  declaration  of  its  essential  charac- 
teristics. The  strictly  logical  definition  contains  two  elements : 
(1)  the  genus  of  the  defined  notion ;  i.e.,  the  marks  or  attributes 
that  it  has  in  common  with  some  other  notions :  and  (2)  the 
specific  difference ;  i.  e.,  the  marks  by  which  it  is  discriminated 
from  these  same  notions.  Thus,  if  Rhetoric  be  defined  the 
theory  of  prose,  the  genus  is  theory ;  by  this  its  similarity  to  a 
number  of  other  notions  is  pointed  out;  as,  the  theory  of  poetry, 
of  music,  etc.  The  specific  difference  is  prose;  by  this  mark 
this  one  theory  is  distinguished  from  every  other. 

A  logical  definition  gives  only  the  essential  marks,  and  of 
these  only  those  which  are  original ;  that  is,  such  as  are  derived 
immediately  from  the  notion  itself,  and  from  which  others  can 
be  derived,  but  themselves  are  not  deduced  from  any  other 
quality.  The  possession  of  reason  is  an  essential  and  original 
mark  of  the  notion  man,  and  must  enter  into  its  definition ; 
but  the  capacity  of  speech  is  a  derivative  essential,  being  in- 
volved in  and  deduced  from  the  attribute  rationality;  it  can 
not  therefore  form  part  of  a  logical  definition.  It  admits  only 
positive  characteristics.  It  tells  what  the  object  is ;  but  nega- 
tive statements  merely  show  from  what  a  notion  is  excluded, 
and  do  not  show  what  it  contains.  The  test  of  a  good  defini- 
tion is  its  adequacy ;  it  must  apply  to  all  of  the  class,  and  to  no 
other.  When  it  does  not  embrace  all,  it  is  too  narrow ;  when 
it  includes  more  than  the  defined  notion  applies  to,  it  is  too 
broad.  When  man  is  defined  to  be  a  rational  being,  the  defini- 
tion is  too  broad;  when  Rhetoric  is  defined  the  art  of  argu- 
mentative discourse,  the  definition  is  too  narrow. 

The  definition  should  be  expressed  with  greatest  brevity ;  the 
words  should  be  used  in  their  ordinary  acceptation,  and  be  im- 
mediately intelligible.  The  accumulation  of  abstract  terms, 
and  the  use  of  figurative  expressions,  should  be  guarded 
against. 

A  definition  is  intelligible  only  so  far  as  we  understand  the 
meaning  of  the  terms  employed  in  it.  When  the  brief,  abstract 
definition  is  not  sufficient,  its  terms  may  be  analyzed  and  de- 


Sec.  104  EXPOSITION.  179 

fined;  the  new  definitions  may  again  be  subjected  to  the  same 
process,  until  notions  are  reached  that,  as  simple,  do  not  admit 
of  definition,  or,  as  well  known,  do  not  need  it.  It  often  re- 
quires a  series,  or  system,  of  definitions  to  secure  the  requisite 
decree  of  clearness. 

It  is  a  not  uncommon  error  to  attempt  to  define  ideas  that 
are  from  their  nature  indefinable.  The  limits  of  definition 
should  be  understood,  and  the  writer  ought  to  be  aware  what 
kind  of  definition  the  object  is  susceptible  of,  if  it  be  definable 
at  all ;  he  will  otherwise  fall  into  obscurity  and  error.  Simple 
notions  and  notions  of  individuals  can  not  be  defined  logically. 
In  the  first,  a  higher  notion  under  which  to  bring  them  can  not 
be  found ;  in  the  latter,  there  can  be  given  only  a  number  of 
accidental  qualities  by  which  jme  individual  is  distinguished 
from  others. 

A  writer,  even  in  a  scientific  treatise,  is  not  restricted  to 
logical  definitions;  he  is  at  liberty,  and  is  often  compelled  to 
use  in  their  stead,  or  to  add  to  them,  what  the  logicians  call 
descriptions.  These  contain  qualities  which  are  not  essential, 
but  are  better  known  or  more  easily  suggested  to  others,  and 
are  therefore  better  suited  to  the  ends  of  discourse.  Thus  may 
be  given  the  properties  of  an  object ;  i.  e.,  qualities  that  belong 
exclusively  to  the  class,  not  deducible  from  the  qualities  con- 
tained in  the  definition,  but  always  found  in  connection  with 
them  ;  or  some  attributes  which  the  object  has  in  common  with 
other  objects ;  or  even  merely  accidental  qualities. 

104.  Division. — Division  is  the  analysis  of  a  notion  as  an. 
extensive  whole ;  it  gives  the  subordinate  classes  of  a  notion ; 
its  aim  is  to  give  order  und  completeness  to  our  knowledge. 
The  notion  is  called  the  divided  whole  ;  its  parts,  the  dividing 
members,  which,  with  reference  to  their  relation  to  each  other, 
are  called  coordinates,  and  with  reference  to  the  divided  notion 
are  called  subordinates  or  species. 

The  principle  of  Division. — The  most  important  and  diffi- 
cult part  of  the  procedure  is  to  find  the  principle  of  division. 


180  ELEMENTARY  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE.    Sec. 

This  is  a  quality  belonging  to  some  of  the  species,  but  not  to 
all,  by  means  of  which  the  higher  notion  or  genus  is  split  into 
parts.  Thus,  if  we  are  to  divide  the  notion  science,  we  find 
that  some  sciences  are  concerned  with  the  facts  and  laws  of  the 
material  universe,  and  others  with  the  facts  and  laws  of  mind, 
and  accordingly  we  divide  science  into  physical  and  mental. 

It  is  plain  that  as  a  notion  may  be  contemplated  from  different 
points  of  view,  different  principles  of  division  can  be  chosen  and 
different  divisions  made.  The  notion  mankind  may  be  divided 
with  reference  to  color  (Caucasian,  Xegro,  etc.);  with  reference 
to  regions  occupied  by  them  (European,  Asiatic,  etc.);  with 
reference  to  descent  (Indo-Gerinanic,  Shemitic,  etc.);  with  ref- 
erence to  sex,  age,  culture,  occupation,  etc. 

As  to  the  principle  of  division,  the  rules  to  be  followed  are : 

1.  There  must  be  but  one  for  the  same  series.     It  may  be  a 
complex  notion,  but  it  must  not  be  changed.     If  it  is,  there 
will  not  be  a  true  division.     Should,  for  example,  mankind  be 
divided  according  to  color  and  age,  we  should  have  a  cross 
division ;   some  belonging  to  one  of  the  members  would  be 
found  in  the  other. 

2.  The  principle  chosen  must  be  adapted  to  the  purpose  of 
the  writer.     Different  sciences  and  different  purposes  require 
entirely  different  divisions.     A  distribution  of  men  that  would 
be  of  importance  in  political  economy,  would  not  be  adapted  to 
the  purposes  of  the  moralist. 

3.  It  should  be  fertile ;  L  e^  afford  the  greatest  number  of 
important  determinations.     It  should  accordingly  be  an  essen- 
tial, not  an  accidental  quality.     The  division  of  animals  accord- 
ing to  the  number  of  legs  would  be  barren. 

The  process  can  be  repeated  on* the  subordinate  notions; 
each  of  them  can  be  divided,  and  their  parts  again  be  sub- 
divided until  notions  are  reached  that  contain  under  them  only 
individuals.  The  resolving* of  these  latter  into  their  parts  is 
sometimes  called  distribution.  In  the  sciences,  in  which  it  is 
important  to  bring  together  related,  and  to  separate  the  differ- 
ent parts,  the  gradations  of  notions  are  marked  by  different 
terms.  The  grand  divisions  are :  I.  Primary  Divisions ;  II. 


Sec.  105  EXPOSITION.  181 

(Masses;  III.  Orders;  IV.  Genera;  V.  Species.  Several  of 
these  are  subdivided ;  as  orders,  into  subordinate  orders  and 
tribes ;  species,  into  variety  and  race. 

Laws  of  Division. — The  laws  of  division  are : 

1.  The  dividing  members  must,  when  taken  together,  be 
equal  to  the  divided  whole. 

2.  The  dividing  members  must  exclude  each  other. 

3.  The  division  must  not  be  forced ;  the  number  of  members 
is  not  to  be  determined  by  some  preconceived  scheme,  but  by 
the  nature  of  the  notion  and  the  special  purpose  of  the  division. 
Excess  of  symmetry  should  be  avoided;  it  does  not  follow  that 
because  one  coordinate  is  divided,  the  others  also  should  be. 

4.  The  division  should  not  be  too  minute ;  excessive  subdi- 
vision, instead  of  aiding  in  obtaining  a  general  view  of  the 
whole  and  of  the  relations  of  the  parts,  causes  indistinctness 
and  confusion. 

105.  Exposition  of  the  notion  in  its  relations. — The  full 
explication  of  a  notion  requires,  in  addition  to  its  \le  fruition  and 
division,  the  consideration  of  its  various  relations  : 

1.  The  antecedents  and  -consequents,  the  circumstances  of 
time  and  place,  and  especially  the  relations  of  cause  and  effect, 
should  be  mentioned.     Under  cause,  are  included  all  the  cir- 
cumstances without  which  an  event  could  not  have  occurred — 
the  occasion  and  instruments  employed,  as  well  as  the  efficient 
cause.     The  enumeration  of  the  effects  is  a  very  important  part 
of  the  exposition  of  a  large  number  of  subjects.     The  most  im- 
portant ought  to  be  given,  and,  if  numerous,  be  classified. 
The  less  important  are  either  omitted   or  but   briefly  men- 
tioned. 

2.  The  notion  should  be  compared  with  similar  notions.     It 
must  first  be  shown  wherein  the  notions  agree ;  as,  that  they 
belong  to  the  same  gen  us,  or  can  be  referred  to  the  same  cause, 
or  have  the  same  end,  etc.     The  points  of  agreement  should  be 
in  important  qualities;  mere  superficial  resemblances  can  give 
no  just  view  of  the  real  nature  of  the  objects  compared.     But, 


182  ELEMENTARY  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE.    Sec.  105 

as  all  comparison  implies  a  difference,  it  must,  in  the  second 
place,  be  shown  wherein  the  objects  differ.  Here,  again,  care 
is  required  not  to  mistake  slight  points  of  difference  for  essen- 
tial ones. 

3.  The  notion  is  further  to  be  explained  by  comparing  it  with 
its  opposites ;  i.  e.,  such  as  are  contradictory  or  contrary.  The 
contrast  excites  attention,  brings  to  view  the  qualities  that  are 
to  be  made  prominent,  and  separates  them  more  distinctly  from 
qualities  with  which  they  are  liable  to  be  confounded.  When 
the  simple  mention  of  the  opposite  notions  does  not  give  suffi- 
cient clearness  and  fullness  to  the  exposition,  they  may  be  ana- 
lyzed and  their  parts  enumerated. 

106.  Additional  instruments  of  Exposition  are : 

1.  Examples. — By  an  example  is  meant  a  particular  case, 
either  an  individual  or  species,  which  is  taken  as  the  repre- 
sentative of  the  entire  class.     Thus,  the  botanist  explains  the 
nature  of  a  class  of  plants  by  means  of  a  single  one ;  the  min- 
eralogist takes  a  single  specimen  to  exhibit  the  qualities  of  a 
class  of  minerals.     The  individuals  are  of  no  importance  except 
so  far  as  they  are  representative  of  a  large  number ;  all  merely 
individual  peculiarities  are  overlooked,  and  those  dwelt  upon 
which  are  characteristic  of  the  class. 

In  selecting  an  example,  we  should  seek  for  one  in  which  the 
point  to  be  elucidated  is  prominent,  and  in  which  there  are  the 
fewest  qualities  likely  to  mislead.  As  it  is  not  always  possible 
to  do  this,  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to  employ  a  number  of 
'examples,  so  that  by  exhibiting  the  principle  under  a  variety 
of  circumstances,  its  distinctive  character  may  be  apprehended. 

2.  Analogy. — When  the  direct  resemblance  of  a  notion  with 
others  can  not  be  exhibited,  it  may  be  illustrated  by  means  of 
analogies.     Two  objects  may  not  be  alike,  yet  they  may  stand 
in  identical  relations  to  other  objects.     Analogy,  taken  in  its 
strictest  sense,  is  identity  of  relation ;  as,  for  example,  the  rela- 
tion of  2  to  4  is  identical  with  that  of  8  to  1G.     In  elucidating 


Sec.  107  EXPOSITION.       -  183 

ideas  -which  do  not  lie  within  the  sphere  of  experience,  this  is 
the  only  mode  by  which  we  can  suggest  them  to  others.  We 
avail  ourselves  of  it,  for  example,  when  in  endeavoring  to  ex- 
hibit the  relation  of  God  to  the  human  race,  we  describe  him 
as  our  Father. 

107.  A  scheme  of  Exposition  of  a  Notion.— A  scheme  for 
the  exposition  of  notions,  with  some  of  the  topics  to  be  used,  is 
here  given.  It  will  be  understood  that  all  the  topics  given  can 
not  be  applied  in  every  subject. 

I.  Explication  of  the  term  by  which  the  notion  is  ex- 
pressed. When  possible  a  single  term  should  be  chosen  instead 
of  a  phrase. 

1.  Give  the  synonymous  words. 

2.  Give  the  etymology  of  the  wrord,  including  its  composi- 
tion, origin,  primary  and  derivative  significations,  and  the  his- 
tory of  its  changes  in  form  and  meaning. 

3.  Resolve  its  ambiguity ;  giving  its  popular  and  scientific 
use,  and  the  sense  in  which  it  is  to  be  understood  in  the  dis- 
course. 

II.  Explication  of  the  Notion  in  itself. 

1.  Analyze  the  notion  in  its  intension.     This  includes : 

(a)  The  definition,  or  the  declaration  of  its  original  and 
essential  qualities,  which,  in  its  most  concise  form,  is  a  logical 
definition  composed  of  the  genus  and  specific  difference. 

(b)  The  derivative  essentials,  or  qualities  involved  in  and 
deducible  from  the  definition. 

(c)  Logical  description,  or  a  statement  of  the  properties  and 
accidental  qualities  of  the  object. 

2.  Analyze  the  notion  in  its  extension.     The  limits  to  which 
the  division  is  to  be  carried  depends  upon  circumstances.     It 
may  be  either  a  simple  division  or  a  classification. 

III.  Explication  of  the  Notion  in  its  relation  to  other 
Notions. 


184  ELEMENTARY  FOKMS  OF  DISCOURSE.    Sec.  107 

1.  Mention  adjuncts,  circumstances  of  time,  place,  etc. 

2.  Give  its  cause,  occasion,  instruments. 

3.  State  fully  the  effects,  classifying  them  if  numerous. 

4.  Compare  with  similar  or  cognate  notions. 

5.  Compare  with  diverse,  contrary,  and  contradictory  no- 
tions. 

6.  Illustrate  by  example  and  analogy. 

108.  Exposition  of  a  Proposition. — In  a  proposition  no- 
tions are  bound  together  so  as  to  form  a  single  thought.  It  is 
the  object  of  exposition  to  ascertain  and  exhibit  this  thought 
precisely  and  fully. 

1.  To  accomplish  this  it  is  necessary,  in  the  first  place,  to 
fix  the  meaning  of  the  terms,  and  to  analyze  the  notions  accord- 
ing to  the  method  already  given.     Special  attention  should  be 
given  to  figurative  expressions,  and  to  qualifying  words  and 
phrases.     The  division  of  the  leading  notions  is  an  important 
means  of  giving  clearness  to  the  statement  of  a  general  prin- 
ciple ;  what  is  affirmed  of  a  whole  class  is  by  this  means  shown 
to  be  true  of  all  the  subordinate  classes ;  and  instead  of  the 
vague  impression  produced  by  a  general  statement,  there  is  the 
distinct  one  arising  from  dwelling  upon  a  number  of  particular 
statements. 

2.  The  nature  of  the  sentence  should  be  noticed.     Sentences 
are  declarative,  interrogative,  imperative,  optative.     Whatever 
its  form,  it  is  necessary  to  draw  from  it  the  judgment  intended 
to  be  expressed.     It  may  also  be  simple  or  complex ;  if  com- 
plex, the  various  judgments  which  are  combined  must  be  dis- 
criminated, and  exhibited  in  their  relation  to  each  other. 

3.  A  proposition  may  be  expounded  by  repeating  the  truth 
in  other  words.     There  are  various  modes  of  varying  a  state- 
ment.     It  may  be  expressed  literally  and  figuratively.      It 
may  be  given  in  an  amplified   and  in  a  sententious   form. 
When  this  mode  is  chosen,  the  expanded  declaration  ought  to 
precede,  and  the  brief  follow ;  by  the  first,  the  thought  is  made 
intelligible;   by  the  second,  it  is  conveyed  with  energy  and 
impressed  on  the  memory.     It  may  be  given  positively  and 


Sec.  109  ARGUMENT.  185 

negatively.  As  every  affirmation  involves  the  denial  of  the 
contradictory  judgment,  we itiay  aflftrra  a  principle  both  directly 
and  by  denying  the  counter-proposition;  as,  "All  our  knowl- 
edge is  from  experience ;  there  is  no  intuitive  knowledge." 
Frequently  a  proposition  is  not  intelligible  without  the  state- 
ment of  its  opposite;  as,  "The  poet  is  born,  not  made."  The 
negative  is  necessary  in  such  cases  to  fix  the  limits  of  the  posi- 
tive assertion;  even  when  it  is  not  thus  absolutely  indispen- 
sable, the  combination  of  the  two  forms  contributes  greatly  to 
the  correct  understanding  of  the  proposition. 

4.  The  proposition  may  be  compared  with  others  enouncing 
the  same  or  a  similar  judgment.     In  examining  the  writings 
of  an  author,  the  various  statements  of  an  important  principle 
should  be  compared ;  as  these  limit,  qualify,  and  explain  each 
other,  we  can  gather  from  them  the  exact  thought,  which  may 
not  be  fully  given  in  any  of  the  separate  propositions. 

5.  The  general  principle  may  be  made  intelligible  by  exam- 
ples.    The  rules  to  be  observed  are  the  same  as  those  given  for 
the  elucidation  of  notions. 

0.  The  judgment  may  be  considered  in  its  relations  to  other 
judgments.  Here  especially  may  be  shown  from  what  it  is  de- 
rived, and  what  consequences,  inferences,  and  applications  may 
be  drawn  from  it. 


CHAPTER  IY. 

ARGUMENT. 

109.  Argument :  what,  and  what  implied  in, — An  argu- 
ment is  a  series  of  propositions  or  judgments  by  which  the  truth 
or  falsehood  of  a  given  proposition  is  evinced.  It  always  im- 
plies doubt  or  disbelief  in  reference  to  a  particular  question;  its 
aim  is  to  produce  conviction.  In  this  it  differs  from  exposition, 
which  seeks  to  remove  ignorance  as  to  the  nature  and  relations 
of  notions.  When  doubt  or  disbelief  results  from  ignorance, 
:  :<> 


186  ELEMENTARY  FORMS  OF  DISCOUESE.     Sec.  109 

exposition  alone  suffices  to  remove  it.  In  most  cases  the  truth 
or  falsehood  of  the  question  in  dispute  can  be  established  only 
by  showing  that  it  agrees  with  or  conflicts  with  some  admitted 
truth. 

Nature  and  degrees  of  Conviction. — Conviction  must  not 
be  confounded  with  mere  subjective  belief.  We  may  not  be 
able  to  give  the  reason  why  we  believe ;  our  belief  may  be  the 
result  of  ignorance,  prejudice,  education,  or  passion.  But  this 
is  not  conviction ;  which  is  a  feeling  of  certainty  founded  upon 
a  clear  apprehension  of  the  grounds  or  reasons  of  our  belief. 
As  it  is  the  aim  of  argument  to  produce  conviction,  it  must  set 
forth  the  reasons  why  a  proposition  is  affirmed  or  denied.  It 
does  not  merely  assert  that  it  is  true  or  false,  but  shows  why 
it  is. 

Conviction  is  of  various  degrees.  When  the  possibility  of 
doubt  is  excluded  it  is  called  certainty,  or  absolute  certainty. 
The  objects  about  which  we  can  obtain  absolute  certainty  are 
few;  we  must  be  content  in  most  matters  with  probability; 
that  is,  with  the  likelihood  that  the  assertion  is  true.  Proba- 
bility is  also  of  various  degrees — from  a  stage  but  little  re- 
moved from  doubt  to  one  approaching  certainty.  We  distin- 
guish the  different  degrees  of  probability  by  using  such  adjec- 
tives as,  slight,  considerable,  high,  etc. 

Argumentation  is  either  Positive  or  Negative, — Positive 
argumentation,  or  confirmation^  establishes  the  truth  of  a 
proposition ;  negative  argumentation,  or  refutation,  shows  the 
falsehood  of  a  proposition  or  the  want  of  validity  of  an  argu- 
ment. 

Both  may  enter  into  the  same  discourse;  both  employ  the 
same  forms  of  reasoning ;  but  as  they  have  points  of  difference 
that  require  to  be  noticed,  they  will  be  treated  of  separately. 

110,  Confirmation. — Confirmation  consists  in  proving  the 
truth  of  a  particular  proposition  by  showing  its  connection  with 
some  admitted  truth.  It  contains : 


Sec.  Ill  ARGUMENT.  187 

1.  The  Thesis,  or  that  which  is  laid  down  to  be  proved.     It 
must  be  a  categorical  proposition,  i.  e.,  a  direct,  unconditional 
assertion  of  the  agreement  or  disagreement  of  two  notions. 

2.  The  Premises,  or  reasons,  which  are  judgments  true  and 
well  known  by  which  the  truth  of  the  thesis  is  established. 

The  force  and  validity  of  the  reasoning  depend  upon  the 
truth  of  the  premises,  and  their  relation  to  each  other  and  to 
the  thesis.  When  the  premises  are  true  and  their  connection 
strictly  logical,  the  conclusion  is  true.  But  the  argument  is 
not  valid  when  any  of  the  premises  are  false,  or  when,  though 
true,  they  are  not  in  proper  relation  to  each  other,  or  when  they 
are  less  known  and  certain  than  what  we  would  prove  by  them. 
The  certainty  of  the  conclusion  can  never  be  greater  than  that 
of  the  weakest  of  the  premises. 

111.  Preparation  of  the  Question. — When  the  question  is 
complicated,  a  number  of  preliminary  procedures  are  often  nec- 
essary to  prevent  misunderstanding,  to  obviate  difficulties,  and 
to  prepare  for  the  introduction  of  the  arguments.  These  pre- 
liminaries are  included  under  the  head  of — The  preparation  of 
the  Question. 

Importance  of. — The  first  rule  to  be  observed  in  arguing 
upon  any  question  is  to  lay  down  with  the  greatest  possible  pre- 
cision the  proposition  that  is  to  be  established.  This  is  neces- 
sary in  order  to  select  appropriate  arguments.  When  there  is 
uncertainty  as  to  what  conclusion  is  to  be  reached,  it  is  impos- 
sible to  select  premises  from  which  it  can  be  naturally  or  neces- 
sarily deduced.  Some  of  the  wrorst  vices  of  reasoning,  such  as 
begging  the  question  and  irrelevant  conclusion,  often  result 
from  the  neglect  of  this  rule. 

It  is  also  necessary  in  order  to  determine  the  relations  of  the 
various  arguments  employed.  In  discussing  a  question,  it  is 
often  necessary  to  introduce  subordinate  questions,  which  have 
to  be  settled  before  we  can  proceed  with  the  main  argument. 
There  is  great  danger  that  in  discussing  these  subordinate 
points  the  main  issue  will  be  lost  sight  of.  This  occurs  most 


188  ELEMENTARY  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE.    Sec.  Ill 

frequently  in  oral  discussions.  The  only  means  of  preventing 
this  evil  is  to  fix  clearly  the  issue,  recall  it  frequently,  and  judge 
of  all  that  is  introduced  by  its  relation  to  it. 

The  rule  is  to  be  observed  even  when  circumstances  make  it 
expedient  not  to  enounce  explicitly  the  thesis.  The  clearness 
of  the  writer's  view  will  be  communicated  to  the  entire  dis- 
course ;  the  reader  will  gather  from  its  drift  the  precise  point 
to  be  proved,  and  will  receive  .the  impression  intended  to  be 
produced.  When,  on  the  other  hand,  there  is  the  least  vague- 
ness in  the  writer's  view,  the  reader  will  not  be  able  to  tell  how 
far  he  agrees  with  him  and  how  far  he  differs  from  him ;  will 
often  mistake  the  question ;  and  will  fail  to  see  the  bearing  and 
force  of  his  reasoning. 

Mode  of  preparing  the  Question. — The  means  towards  pre- 
paring the  question  are : 

1.  Explication  of  the  terms  of  the  question.     The  rules  for 
this  process  are  given  in  the  chapter  on  Exposition  (Sec.  102- 
107).     To  what  extent  the  explication  should  be  carried  de- 
pends on  the  nature  of  the  subject.     A  full  exposition  is  some- 
times needed ;  on  other  occasions  a  brief  resolution  of  the  am- 
biguity of  a  single  term  will  suffice.     It  ought  not  to  be  carried 
further  than  is  indispensable  to  prepare  the  way  for  the  argu- 
ments to  be  presented.     Only  such  terms  should  be  explained 
as  are  liable  to  ]be  misunderstood ;  and  only  those  meanings 
should  be  given  which  aifect  the  question. 

The  careful  discrimination  of  the  meanings  of  words  aids  in 
finding  arguments,  guards  the  reasoner  against  the  many  errors 
arising  from  ambiguous  words,  and  prepares  him  to  meet  the 
objections,  solve  the  difficulties,  and  expose  the  fallacies  origi- 
nating from  the  same  source. 

2.  Fixing  the  nature  and  extent  of  the  question.     (The  proc- 
ess is  explained  in  Sec.  108).     The  character  of  the  reason- 
ing varies  with  that  of  the  proposition  to  be  proved.     Argu- 
ments that  would  be  valid  to  establish  a  matter  of  fact,  are  not 
suited  to  prove  a  purely  theoretical  proposition  ;  so,  also,  what  is 
sufficient  to  show  the  possibility  of  an  object,  will  be  inadequate 


Sec,  111  ARGUMENT.  189 

to  prove  that  it  actually  is  or  that  it  must  be.  The  exact 
nature  ot  the  assertion  must  be  settled  before  searching  for 
arguments ;  whether  it  is  of  a  matter  of  fact  or  a  general  truth  ; 
whether  of  what  can  be  or  is  likely  to  be,  or  of  what  actually 
is,  or  of  what  must  be;  whether  it  is  made  absolutely  or  with 
qualifications  and  restrictions.  The  quantity  of  the  terms 
should  be  marked.  In  ordinary  conversation  wre  allow  many 
ellipses,  but  in  reasoning  we  must  guard  against  the  misunder- 
standings that  arise  from  their  use.  When  any  of  the  terms 
are  undesignated,  so  that  it  is  not  apparent  in  what  extent 
they  are  to  be  understood,  the  proposition  is  ambiguous.  "A 
reason  or  who  expresses  particular  assertions  without  explicit 
limitation,  must  do  so  either  because  he  designs  to  be  ambigu- 
ous, or  because  he  thinks  confusedly,  or  because  he  is  (perhaps 
unconsciously)  suppressing  some  step  in  the  reasoning,  which 
it  would  be  right  to  force  out  into  explicit  statement.77  [Spal- 
dimfs  Logic,  pp.  59,  CO. 

The  question  may  be  a  complicated  one,  involving  a  num- 
ber of  distinct  points,  as  is  the  case  in  many  resolutions.  The 
complex  proposition  is  then  to  be  resolved  into  its  several 
points  or  heads,  in  order  that  the  arguments  bearing  upon  each 
may  be  distinctly  brought  out  and  placed  in  their  proper  con- 
nection. 

3.  The  statement  of  what  is  conceded.  In  every  controversy 
two  things  must  be  carefully  distinguished.  There  are  certain 
points  in  which  both  sides  agree,  and  which  therefore  are  ex- 
cluded from  the  discussion ;  and  there  is  a  definite  question 
proposed  for  decision.  It  is  advisable  to  state  what  points  are 
not  disputed,  or  what,  as  not  an  essential  part  of  the  question 
although  connected  with  it,  is  conceded.  By  this  means  the 
real  issue  is  set  in  a  clearer  light,  and  many  prejudices  and 
false  impressions  are  removed. 

When  the  writer  does  not  wish  to  argue  a  particular  point 
involved  in  the  question,  but  would  reserve  the  right  to  do  so 
afterwards,  he  may  waive  it.  This  is  not  the  same  as  conced- 
ing it :  and  lie  must  make  it  plain,  that  while  declining  for  the 
present  to  dispute  it,  he  does  not  admit  its  truth. 


100  ELEMENTARY  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE.    Sec.  Ill 

After  having  shown  what  is  not  in  dispute,  the  thesis  should 
he  laid  down  with  all  the  necessary  limitations  and  qualifica- 
tions. If  any  of  the  original  terms  are  ambiguous,  paraphrases 
and  definitions  should  be  substituted.  Care  ought  to  be  taken 
not  to  advance  more  than  the  writer  intends  to  establish.  The 
conclusion  of  the  reasoning  must  be  identical  with  the  thesis  as 
laid  down. 

4.  Enumeration  of  the  various  contrary  opinions.  In  affirm- 
ing one  proposition  we  may  deny  several  contrary  ones ;  as  in 
asserting  the  superiority  of  the  republican  form  of  government, 
we  virtually  deny  the  superiority  of  every  other  form.  In  diffi- 
cult and  abstruse  questions  it  is  important  to  state  explicitly  the 
contrary  opinions  of  which  the  thesis  is  the  denial.  The  ad- 
vantages of  so  doing  are,  that  it  prevents  the  hearer  from  sup- 
posing that  there  is  but  a  single  alternative,  and,  by  exhibiting 
the  thesis  in  contrast  with  the  several  antagonistic  opinions, 
presents  it  with  greater  fullness  and  clearness. 

112.  Invention  of  Arguments. — The  question  having  been 
prepared,  the  reasons  which  evince  the  truth  of  the  thesis  are 
in  the  next  place  to  be  gathered  and  arranged.     We  have  to 
consider,  first,  the  various  kinds  of  reasoning,  or  the  division 
of  arguments;  next,  their  selection,  and  then  their  arrange- 
ment. 

113,  Direct  and  Indirect  Reasoning, — A  proposition  may 
be  proved  either  directly  or  indirectly.     In  the  first  case  the 
grounds  or  reasons  are  laid  down,  and  the  truth  to  be  proved 
is  inferred  from  them.     In  the  second  case  the  procedure  is 
more  complex.     The  truth  of  the  thesis  is  not  proved  imme- 
diately, but  by  showing  the  falsehood  of  its  contradictory.     In- 
direct reasoning  is  founded  upon  the  logical  law,  that  of  two 
contradictory  judgments  only  one  can  be  true,  and  one  must  be 
true,  so  that  we  are  warranted  to  conclude  from  the  truth  of 
one  contradictory  to  the  falsehood  of  the  other,  and  from  the 
falsehood  of  one  to  the  truth  of  the  other.     The  usual  mode 
of  proceeding  is,  to  state  in  a  disjunctive  proposition  both  the 


Sec.  113  ARGUMENT.  191 

thesis  and  its  contradictory,  and  then,  assuming  the  truth  of 
the  contradictory  proposition,  to  show  that  it  involves  some 
false  principle,  or  leads  to  consequences  that  are  manifestly 
false.  The  proposition  assumed  must  consequently  be  false, 
and  its  contradictory  (the  thesis  we  design  to  prove)  must  be 
true. 

Ex. — If  the  thesis  is,  Man  is  a  free  agent,  then  the  antithesis  is,  Man 
is  not  a  free  agent.  To  prove  the  thesis  directly,  we  should  have  to  lay 
down  positive  arguments  ;  as,  the  consciousness  of  the  power  of  contrary 
choice,  the  consciousness  of  responsibility,  etc.  The  indirect  proof  would 
take  some  such  form  as  this :  Man  is  either  free  or  he  is  not  free.  Let 
us  assume  that  lie  is  not  free.  If  he  is  not  free,  he  can  not,  in  cases  of 
conflicting  motives,  choose,  but  must  blindly  follow'  one  of  the  impulses. 
But  we  know  from  consciousness  that  he  can  decide  between  conflicting 
motives ;  therefore  it  is  false  that  he  is  not  free.  He  must  therefore  be 
free. 

Conditions  of  the  validity  of  Indirect  Reasoning. — In 

order  that  indirect  probation  may  be  valid,  we  must  be  sure,  in 
the  first  place,  that  the  proposition  assumed  as  a  premise  is 
the  contradictory,  not  merely  a  contrary  of  the  thesis.  There 
can  be  but  one  contradictory  of  a  given  judgment  5  there  may 
be  several  judgments  in  contrary  opposition  to  it.  While  in 
asserting  the  truth  of  one  proposition  we  deny  that  of  all  its 
contraries,  we  do  not  in  denying  a  proposition  assert  the  truth 
of  some  one  of  its  contraries.  If  we  deny  that  a  color  is  red, 
we  do  not  affirm  that  it  is  blue.  In  the  second  place,  the  false- 
hood or  absurdity  to  which  the  contradictory  judgment  has  been 
reduced  must  be  real.  To  show  that  something  is  uncommon 
or  incomprehensible  is  not  proving  that  it  is  impossible. 

Comparative  advantages  of  the  two  methods. — The  direct 
method  is  the  one  ordinarily  used.  It  is  more  in  accordance 
with  the  natural  course  of  thought  to  deduce  the  truth  of  a 
proposition  from  its  positive  grounds.  Both  methods  are  valid. 
The  indirect  excludes  the  contradictory  more  definitely,  and 
often  gives  a  greater  certainty  than  the  direct,  but  it  offers  no 
reasons  to  confirm  the  truth.  The  direct,  on  the  other  hand, 


102  ELEMENTARY  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE.    Sec.  113 

affords  the  satisfying  conviction  that  arises  from  perceiving  the 
connection  of  a  truth  with  other  undoubted  truths.  The  indi- 
rect is  much  more  liable  to  fallacies. 

As  a  general  rule,  the  direct  is  to  be  preferred.  There  are, 
however,  occasions  in  which  it  is  more  convenient  to  employ 
the  indirect.  The  nature  of  the  subject  or  the  character  of  the 
audience  may  make  direct  proof  difficult ;  or  the  contradictory 
of  the  thesis  is  better  knawn,  and  we  can  exhibit  its  absurdity 
in  a  striking  manner.  It  is  often  the  only  means  of  dealing 
with  the  ignorant  and  prejudiced,  and  with  unreasonable  and 
disingenuous  opponents.  False  doctrines  and  untenable,  pre- 
tentious systems  are  in  no  way  so  safely  and  surely  exposed  as 
by  showing  their  internal  contradictions,  and  that  they  lead  by 
legitimate  reasoning  to  the  impossible  and  the  absurd. 

Ecasoning  is  most  effectual  when  the  two  methods  are  com- 
bined. In  this  case,  we  first  show  that  no  other  proposition  than 
the  thesis  can  be  true,  and  then  show  why  it  is  true. 

114.  Direct  reasoning  is  divided  into  deductive  and  induct- 
ive. 

Deductive  Reasoning, — In  deductive  reasoning  we  proceed 
from  a  general  truth  to  a  particular;  from  the  whole  to  the 
part.  A  judgment  is  derived  from  a  more  general  one  by 
means  of  an  intermediate  judgment ;  the  conclusion  contains 
nothing  more  than  is  virtually  contained  in  the  premises.  The 
argument  is  composed  of  three  essential  parts — a  general  rule, 
which  may  be  either  a  universal  truth  or  a  generalization  of 
experience ;  the  application  of  this  rule  to  a  particular  case ; 
and  the  proposition  drawn  from  them. 

Ex. — All  bodies  moving  in  elliptic  orbits  are  subject  to  the  law  of 
gravitation.  (General  rule.)  Comets  move  in  elliptic  orbits.  (Applica- 
tion of  the  rule.)  Therefore  comets  arc  subject  to  the  law  of  gravitation. 
(Conclusion.) 

The  general  rule  is  called  the  sumption;  the  application  of 
the  rule,  the  subsumption;  the  inferred  proposition,  the  con* 


Sec,  114  ARGUMENT.  103 

cluxion.  The  sumption  and  subsumption  form  the  antecedents 
or  premises;  the  conclusion  is  sometimes  called  the  conse- 
quent. 

Inductive  Reasoning, — Induction,  in  its  widest  sense,  in- 
cludes all  the  modes  of  reasoning  by  which  \vhat  is  unknown  is 
inferred  from  what  is  known.  The  conclusion  is  not  merely  an 
explicit  statement  of  what  is  implicit  in  the  premises;  it  con- 
tains more  than  is  involved  in  them.  The  laws  of  formal  logic 
do  not  answer  to  test  the  validity  of  this  mode  of  reasoning ;  it 
has  its  own  special  laws,  which  are  given  in  inductive  logic. 
It  includes : 

1 .  Induction  in  the  limited  sense  of  the  word ;  by  which  we 
conclude  that  what  belongs  to  some  of  the  species  or  individuals 
of  a  class  belongs  to  the  whole  class ;  as  when  we  infer  that 
because  gold,  silver,  and  copper  melt,  therefore  all  metals  will 
melt ;  or  that  all  great  conquerors  are  great  lawgivers,  because 
Alexander,  Caesar,  Justinian,  Charlemagne,  and  William  the 
Conqueror  were  lawgivers. 

2.  Analogy,  or  the  inference  from  the  partial  similarity  of 
two  or  more  objects  to  their  complete  similarity.     Here  we  do 
not  conclude  that  because  a  number  of  objects  (A,  B,  C,  D, 
etc.),  belonging  to  the  same  class,  possess  in  common   the 
quality  w,  therefore  we  may  expect  to  find  this  quality  in  all 
the  individuals  or  species  of  the  class ;  but  that,  because  A  and 
B  agree  in  certain  essential  characters  (/,  w,  ?*),  it  is  likely 
that  the  quality  r  which  is  found  in  A  will  be  found  in  B. 
The  argument  is  not,  that  because  some  of  a  class  have  a  cer- 
tain quality,  therefore  all  have  it ;  but  that,  as  two  objects  re- 
semble each  other  in  several  points,  they  are  likely  to  resemble 
each  other  in  all.     Thus  we  infer  that  the  planet  Mars  is  prob- 
ably inhabited  as  the  earth  is,  since  it  resembles  the  earth  in 
the  possession  of  an  atmosphere,  clouds,  water,  etc. 

Example,  by  which  we  infer  that  something  will  prove  true 
in  one  case  because  it  happened  in  another ;  as,  that  Harvey, 

Rhet.  17 


194  ELEMENTARY  FORMS  OF  DISCOlteE.    Sec.  114 

or  any  other  discoverer,  will  be  persecuted  because  Galileo  was 
persecuted.  One  form  of  this  argument  is  the  argument  a 
fortiori,  which  consists  in  proving  that  a  thing  being  true  in 
one  case  is  more  evidently  so  in  another  in  which  the  circum- 
stances are  more  favorable.  It  is  but  an  application  of  the 
principle  that  the  greater  includes  the  less.  Thus,  we  infer 
that  if  a  in  an  is  cruel  to  his  fellow-men,  much  more  will  he  be 
cruel  to  brutes. 

3.  Signs,  by  which  we  seek  to  prove  the  probable  existence 
of  a  fact  by  adducing  some  other  fact  or  mark  that  always  or 
in  most  cases  precedes,  accompanies,  or  follows  it.  We  can 
thus  infer  from  the  presence  of  the  cause,  the  presence  of  the 
effect ;  or,  on  the  other  hand,  may  argue  from  the  effect  to  the 
cause. 

The  argument  from  cause  to  effect  is  generally  called  a 
priori  reasoning.  Its  formula  is  stated  by  Whately  thus: 
"As  for  as  any  cause,  popularly  speaking,  has  a  tendency  to 
produce  a  certain  effect,  so  far  its  existence  is  an  argument  for 
that  of  the  effect.  If  the  cause  be  fully  sufficient  and  no  im- 
pediments intervene,  the  effect  in  question  follows  certainly ; 
and  the  nearer  we  approach  to  this,  the  stronger  the  argu- 
ment." 

The  force  of  this  argument  is  to  establish  the  antecedent 
probability  of  the  thesis ;  it  gives  grounds  for  believing  that 
what  is  maintained  is  likely,  by  showing  that  there  are  influ- 
ences that  have  a  tendency  to  produce  it.  Its  efficiency  de- 
pends upon  our  certainty  as  to  (1)  the  existence  of  the  causes 
that  are  assigned,  (2)  their  sufficiency  to  produce  the  effects 
attributed  to  them,  and  (3)  the  absence  of  counteracting  influ- 
ences. 

By  this  mode  of  argument  we  infer  that  a  deed  was  commit- 
ted by  a  certain  person,  because  lie  had  a  motive  to  do  it,  or 
because  it  accords  with  his  character,  and  that  an  event  will 
take  place  because  all  the  usual  conditions  of  its  occurrence 
exist.  This  man  is  the  murderer,  for  he  coveted  the  property ; 
or  he  is  revengeful.  Lying  is  hateful  to  God,  for  he  is  the  God 


Sec.  115        <F      ^jlKRGUMENT.  105 


of  truth.     Dew  ^Plall,  for  the  night  is  clear  and  calm,  the 
atmosphere  moist. 

The  argument  from  effect  to  cause  is  sometimes  called  the 
ci  posteriori  argument.  It  proves  from  the  existence  of  a  cer- 
tain phenomenon  the  presence  of  a  circumstance  that  is  either 
its  cause  or  its  condition.  As  far  as  any  phenomenon  or  com- 
bination of  phenomena  is  the  condition  of  a  given  effect,  so 
far  is  the  existence  of  the  effect  evidence  of  the  existence  of  the 
condition.  Tims,  we  suspect  one  of  robbery,  because  the  stolen 
goods  are  found  in  his  possession ;  we  suspect  a  man  to  be  the 
perpetrator  of  a  murder,  because  he  was  seen  in  company  with 
the  murdered  man,  his  clothes  were  bloody,  etc. 

115.  Extrinsic  Arguments. — All  the  arguments  that  have 
so  far  been  given  belong  to  the  class  of  intrinsic  arguments. 
They  are  obtained  from  the  thesis  by  the  exposition  of  its  essen- 
tial notions.  There  are  others  that  are  extrinsic,  which  must 
be  sought  for  outside  of  the  subject.  To  this  class  belong  laws, 
legal  decisions,  resolutions,  treaties,  testimony,  etc.  They  may 
all  be  embraced  under  two  heads:  1.  Testimony.  2.  Au- 
thority. 

1.  Testimony. — By  means  of  testimony  we  establish  the 
truth  of  a  fact  that  is  beyond  the  sphere  of  our  own  personal 
experience  or  that  of  our  readers.  It  can  be  employed  only  in 
matters  of  experience ;  general  truths,  which  are  gained  by 
comparison  and  inference,  are  not  objects  of  testimony.  Testi- 
mony is  either  immediate  or  mediate.  It  is  immediate  when 
the  witness  reports  what  he  himself  observed;  it  is  mediate 
when  he  reports  a  fact  upon  the  testimony  of  others.  As  a 
report  is  apt  to  be  altered  in  its  transmission  from  one  person 
to  another,  direct  testimony  is  preferred  to  indirect. 

In  estimating  the  credibility  of  testimony  we  must  consider 
the  competency  of  the  witness,  /.  ^.,  his  fitness  to  observe  and 
report  the  fact,  and  his  veracity,  i.  <?.,  his  reputation  for  truth- 
fulness, and  the  absence  of  motives  to  testify  to  what  is  false. 
The  presumption  in  favor  of  the  truthfulness  of  a  witness  is 


106  ELEMENTARY  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE.    Sec.  115 

weakened  when  it  is  found  that  his  testimony  is  for  his  personal 
benefit ;  it  is  strengthened  when  it  leads  to  suffering  or  loss  on 
his  part. 

Testimony  may  be  given  indirectly.  The  writer  or  speaker 
may  not  intend  to  testify  to  a  fact,  but  by  incidental  hints  and 
allusions  when  treating  of  a  different  matter,  he  shows  that  he 
takes  for  granted  its  truth.  The  testimony  of  adversaries  is 
often  given  in  this  undesigned  manner. 

When  the  same  fact  is  reported  by  several  witnesses,  it  must 
be  ascertained  whether  there  has  been  any  concert  between 
them.  If  concert  is  excluded,  the  concurrence  itself,  independ- 
ent of  the  character  of  the  witnesses,  proves  the  truth,  of  the 
fact  reported.  Such  an  agreement  would  be  impossible  unless 
the  occurrence  had  taken  place.  It  is  very  important,  in  deal- 
ing with  concurrent  testimony,  to  discriminate. between  varia- 
tions in  unessential  points,  which  will  always  occur  when  the 
witnesses  speak  the  truth,  and  contradictory  statements. 

2.  Authority, — When  a  declaration  is  made,  not  as  to  an  in- 
dividual fact  of  experience,  but  to  a  general  truth,  or  the  cause 
of  some  phenomenon,  or  what  is  beyond  the  range  of  observa- 
tion, it  receives  the  name  of  authority.  That  one  event  suc- 
ceeded another  is  an  object  of  testimony ;  but  that  the  one 
always  follows  the  other,  or  that  the  first  is  the  cause  of  the 
second,  is  a  matter  of  inference.  To  declare  that  a  drug  was 
administered  to  a  sick  person,  that  peculiar  symptoms  were 
afterwards  manifested,  and  that  the  patient  died,  is  testimony; 
but  to  declare  that  death  was  caused  by  a  particular  poison, 
that  the  symptoms  were  those  always  accompanying  that  kind 
of  poisoning,  is  not  testimony.  These  are  general  truths  about 
which  there  may  be  a  great  diversity  of  judgment  among  honest 
and  able  men.  So  when  a  judgment  is  pronounced  respecting 
the  genuineness  of  the  handwriting  from  its  resemblance  to 
that  of  the  supposed  writer,  it  is  an  inference  drawn  from  com- 
paring the  writing  with  a  standard  in  the  mind  of  the  one  who 
pronounces  the  judgment.  All  such  declarations  belong  to 
authority. 


Sec.  116  ARGUMKXT.  107 

To  this  head  are  referred  precedents  and  decisions  of  courts. 

116.  The  selection  of  Arguments. — The  arguments  gathered 
should  be  carefully  weighed,  and  those  be  selected  which  are 
not  only  applicable,  but  decisive.  Weak  arguments  excite  sus- 
picion, and  destroy  the  force  of  the  valid  arguments  with  which 
they  are  connected.  It  is  often  extremely  difficult  to  tell  what 
are  the  strong  and  what  the  weak  arguments.  We  apply  these 
terms  with  scarcely  any  discrimination,  forgetting  that  they  are 
merely  relative.  In  deciding  upon  the  efficiency  of  an  argu- 
ment we  must  consider  two  things : 

1.  The  nature  of  the  matter  to  be  proved. — The  strength  of 
an  argument  can  not  be  determined  by  the  source  whence  it  is 
drawn ;  that  which  in  one  class  of  subjects  would  be  of  great 
force,  would  be  feeble  in  another  class.  Extrinsic  proof  is  usu- 
ally regarded  as  of  inferior  value.  In  theoretical  subjects  it 
holds,  if  admitted  at  all,  a  subordinate  place ;  but  when  the 
question  is  one  of  fact,  it  is  more  decisive  than  any  other.  In 
theological  discussions  the  appeal  is  to  the  teachings  of  Script- 
ure ;  in  legal  proceedings,  to  the  decisions  of  the  courts ;  in 
both  authority  is  of  supreme  importance.  When  the  question 
is  as  to  a  future  event,  the  a  priori  argument  is  the  most  deci- 
sive :  analogy  and  example  are  also  employed.  These  kinds  of 
proof  are  therefore  the  most  important  in  senatorial  eloquence, 
which  is  occupied  chiefly  with  questions  of  expediency.  When 
the  aim  is  to  establish  the  presence  of  a  certain  cause,  the  a 
posteriori  argument  is  the  most  effective;  when  the  probability 
of  a  past  event  is  to  be  shown,  testimony  is  preferred,  and  after 
it,  the  argument  a  posteriori.  These,  accordingly,  are  the 
most  important  forms  of  proof  in  judicial  oratory. 

kl.  The  condition  of  those  addressed. — It  is  not  necessary  to 
dwell  upon  what  is  so  evident,  that  what  is  complete  proof  to 
those  who  have  some  acquaintance  with  a  subject,  is  often  inef- 
fective with  the  ignorant.  When  our  purpose  is  to  convince 
others,  we  must  in  choosing  arguments  consider  the  degree  of 
intelligence  and  the  capacity  of  attention  of  those  whom  we 
address. 


198  ELEMENTARY  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE.    Sec.  116 

It  is  not  less  important  to  regard  their  moral  condition.  A 
different  procedure  is  necessary  when  we  address  candid  minds, 
who  are  willing  to  hear  and  weigh  the  reasons  presented,  from 
that  which  is  proper  when  we  deal  with  those  Avho  are  preju- 
diced and  captious ;  whom  we  can  hardly  expect  to  convince, 
but  whom  it  is  desirable  to  silence. 

117.  Arrangement  of  Arguments. — The  efficiency  of  argu- 
ments depends  greatly  on  their  arrangement.  A  skillful  dispo- 
sition will  often  give  strength  to  proofs  comparatively  weak, 
while  by  a  defective  arrangement  the  strongest  are  rendered 
powerless.  The  talents  of  the  reasorier  are  shown  principally 
in  his  success  in  combining  his  materials  into  one  compact 
whole,  in  which  each  argument  has  its  proper  place,  and  is 
exhibited  in  the  clearest  light,  and  in  its  relation  to  the  other 
parts  and  to  the  thesis. 

Analytic  and  Synthetic  order. — Either  the  analytic  or  the 
synthetic  method  of  arrangement  may  be  adopted.  In  the 
former  the  question  is  stated  first  ;  the  answer  is  then  given  ; 
and  the  arguments  follow,  proceeding  from  the  less  to  the  more 
general.  This  is  the  natural  and  logical  order.  But  when  the 
opinion  we  advocate  is  unpopular,  or  is  in  danger  of  being 
misunderstood,  it  is  sometimes  expedient  to  adopt  the  synthetic 
order.  In  this  wre  begin  with  the  most  general  of  the  premises, 
which  those  wre  address  will  readily  assent  to,  and  conduct  them 
gradually  to  the  conclusion. 

Principal  and  Subordinate  Arguments. — Great  care  is  re- 
quired in  arranging  coordinate  and  subordinate  arguments. 
We  may  adduce  a  number  of  independent  arguments  each  of 
Avliich  is  intended  to  prove  the  truth  of  the  thesis.  Thus,  in 
proving  the  existence  of  God  we  may  argue  from  the  evidences 
of  design  in  creation,  from  the  moral  nature  of  man,  and  from 
the  idea  of  perfection.  Each  of  these  constitutes  a  separate,  in- 
dependent argument  in  support  of  our  proposition.  They  are 
all  coordinate.  But  it  is  often  necessary  to  prove  the  truth  of 


Sec.  118  ARGUMENT.  199 

some  of  the  coordinate  arguments.  The  proofs  in  this  case  are 
not  intended  to  establish  the  truth  of  the  thesis,  but  of  a  propo- 
sition subordinate  to  it.  These  a  re  subordinate  arguments.  It 
is  important  to  discriminate  these  two  classes  carefully,  and  in 
arranging  our  materials  leave  no  doubt  as  to  their  rank. 

Extrinsic  and  Intrinsic  Arguments. — When  different  kinds 
of  arguments  enter  into  a  discourse,  they  must  be  so  arranged 
that  the  first  shall  prepare  for  the  second.  What  follows  must 
strengthen  the  impression  made  by  what  precedes.  In  order  to 
do  this,  the  peculiar  force  of  the  various  classes  of  arguments 
must  be  carefully  noticed. 

Intrinsic  arguments  should  precede  the  extrinsic.  Among 
intrinsic  arguments  some  naturally  come  first,  others  last ;  and 
when  this  difference  is  disregarded  they  lose  much  of  their  effi- 
ciency. The  first  place  belongs  to  those  which  establish  the 
possibility  or  probability  of  what  is  asserted.  After  having 
raised  a  presumption  in  favor  of  our  position  by  the  a  priori 
argument,  the  attendant  circumstances  and  testimony  can  be 
introduced,  and  following  these,  examples  and  analogy.  By 
this  method  the  anticipation  of  the  truth  of  the  thesis  is  first 
excited,  and  then  confirmed  by  the  various  circumstances  ad- 
duced. If  the  process  is  reversed,  the  effect  of  the  arguments 
from  example,  analogy,  etc.,  is  counteracted  by  the  suspicion 
which  is  always  felt  when  we  can  find  no  sufficient  reason  for 
the  fact  alleged.  To  overcome  this  a  greater  number  of  deci- 
sive proofs  is  required ;  whereas,  after  having  established  the 
antecedent  probability  by  showing  the  existence  of  a  cause  ade- 
quate to  the  effect,  a  few  well  chosen  circumstances  will  remove 
all  reasonable  doubt. 

118.  Syllogistic  and  popular  modes  of  arguing. — The 
strictly  logical,  or  syllogistic,  mode  of  argumentation  is  stiff 
and  tedious,  and  is  rarely  used.  The  popular  mode  differs  from 
it  in  several  respects. 

The  forms  of  the  propositions  are  varied,  the  order  of  prem- 
ises is  changed,  and  their  terms  transposed. 


200  ELEMENTARY  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE.    Sec.  118 

The  syllogisms  are  abridged  by  suppressing  some  of  their 
members.  The  omitted  premise  must  be  one  that  the  mind  can 
easily  supply,  else  the  syllogism  will  lack  perspicuity.  The 
reasoning  may  be  amplified  by  adding  to  one  or  both  of  the 
premises  the  reasons  of  its  truth.  By  this  means  the  proofs 
used  to  establish  the  conclusion  are  kept  before  the  reader's 
mind,  and  as  he  sees  them  with  their  evidence  he  obtains  a 
clearer  knowledge  and  firmer  conviction. 

Perspicuity  must  not  be  sacrificed  in  the  endeavor  to  avoid  a 
too  scholastic  mode  of  reasoning.  The  following  rules  are  to 
be  observed: 

1.  The  premises  must  be  recognized  as  premises.     Fre- 
quently the   statement  is  so  defective,   that   it  is  uncertain 
whether  a  proposition  is  an  argument,  an  explanation,  or  an 
illustration.     The  premises  should  be  made  prominent  in  their 
real  character.     They  must  not  be  merely  incidentally  men- 
tioned, or  concealed  in  subordinate  clauses  and  sentences,  or 
mixed  with  irrelevant  matter. 

2.  The  exact  connection  between  the  arguments  and  the 
conclusion  should  be  made  apparent  5   especially  whether  each 
argument  is  valid  in  itself,  or  is  intended  to  be  combined  with 
others  to  form  a  single  argument.     The  distinction  between 
coordinate   and   subordinate   arguments   should  be   distinctly 
marked. 

3.  Avoid  metaphorical  expressions,  and  an  excess  of  words 
in  laying  down  the  main  positions. 

4.  After  fixing  the  meaning  of  a  term  do  not  deviate  from 
it.     It  is  better  to  repeat  the  same  terms  than  by  varying  them 
to  run  the  risk  of  being  misunderstood. 

119.  Refutation. — Refutation  consists  in  proving  that  a 
given  proposition  is  false,  or  that  a  particular  argument  is  not 
valid. 

A  proposition  is  refuted  indirectly  by  proving  the  truth  of  its 
contradictory.  The  confirmation  of  a  thesis  is  thus  the  virtual 
refutation  of  its  antithesis.  A  proposition  is  refuted  directly 
by  showing  that  it  conflicts  with  a  recognized  truth,  whether  a 


Sec,  119  ARGUMENT.  201 

law  of  thought,  an  axiom  of  morals,  or  a  fact  of  experience. 
The  different  kinds  of  argument  may  all  be  used  for  this  pur- 
pose. 

The  refutation  of  arguments  demands  a  more  detailed  con- 
sideration. 

Before  proceeding  to  the  examination  of  arguments,  we  must 
ascertain  what  is  the  conclusion  intended  to  be  established,  and 
whether  it  involves  the  denial  of  the  position  that  we  maintain. 
If  it  does  riot,  there  is  no  dispute. 

If  the  conclusion  be  antagonistic  to  our  own,  the  process  by 
which  it  has  been  reached  must  be  tested  by  the  laws  of  logic. 
The  procedure  varies  with  the  nature  of  the  reasoning. 

If  the  reasoning  is  deductive,  we  must,  in  the  first  place, 
ascertain  whether,  admitting  the  premises  to  be  true,  the  con- 
clusion is  legitimately  drawn  from  them.  The  tests  are  few 
and  simple;  and  the  defects  of  the  reasoning  can  be  made 
apparent  to  those  who  are  familiar  with  logical  processes,  by 
simply  stating  it  in  syllogistic  form,  or  in  symbols.  It  is  not 
always  easy  to  expose  formal  fallacies  in  addressing  persons 
destitute  of  logical  training.  The  most  convenient,  and  often 
a  very  effective  mode,  is,  to  introduce  an  argument  identical  in 
form  with  that  to  be  refuted,  in  which  the  falsehood  of  the 
conclusion  is  manifest.  We  thus  show  that  if  such  a  way  of 
reasoning  is  valid,  we  can  prove  the  truth  of  a  palpable  ab- 
surdity. 

If  the  form  of  reasoning  is  correct,  it  then  remains  to  exam- 
ine the  principles  of  proof  that  have  been  assumed ;  in  other 
words,  to  investigate  the  truth  of  the  premises.  We  may  im- 
pugn either  the  sumption  or  the  subsumption,  or  both. 

The  falsehood  of  the  sumption,  or  general  rule,  may  be  shown 
in  various  ways.  It  may  be  shown  to  prove  too  much.  As- 
suming it  to  be  true,  we  deduce  consequences  from  it  which  are 
generally  admitted  to  be  false,  or  are  rejected  as  false  by  those 
who  have  advanced  the  general  rule.  The  argument  against 
the  study  of  lUietoric,  that  it  can  Ije  employed  dishonestly  or 
for  a  bad  purpose,  is  refuted  in  this  manner.  The  assumed 
premise  is,  whatever  is  capable  of  being  abused  should  be  con- 


202  ELEMENTARY  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE.     Sec.  119 

derailed:  if  this  be  true,  the  use  of  language,  religion,  etc., 
are  to  be  condemned,  for  they  are  susceptible  of  abuse. 

The  sumption  may  be  only  an  apparently  general  truth. 
There  are  many  loose  generalizations  expressed  as  universally 
true,  while  they  are  but  particular  truths;  they  are  true  of 
some  of  the  class,  or  of  the  majority,  but  not  of  all.  We  are 
not  justified  in  applying  them  to  particular  cases.  If  it  is 
argued  that  a  certain  individual  will  seek  revenge  upon  one 
who  has  done  him  wrong,  for  injured  men  seek  revenge;  the 
reasoning  is  fallacious.  The  assumed  general  truth  is  not  a 
general  one ;  and  is  refuted  by  bringing  an  example  of  the 
contrary. 

The  subsumption  is  refuted  by  showing  that  the  general  rule 
is  not  applicable  to  the  case  in  hand.  We  refute  an  inductive 
argument,  in  the  limited  sense  of  the  word,  by  denying  the 
sufficiency  of  the  instances ;  an  analogy,  by  showing  that  the 
resemblance  is  merely  superficial  and  metaphorical,  or  that 
points  of  difference  have  been  overlooked  which  vitiate  the 
analogy ;  an  example,  by  proving  that  it  is  not  parallel  in  the 
essential  point,  by  counter-examples,  and  by  showing  that 
owing  to  different  circumstances  the  inference  drawn  from  the 
particular  case  is  not  warranted. 

120.  Rules  of  Refutation. — 1.  The  refutation  should  be 
directed  against  what  has  been  adversely  alleged.  The  grossest 
violation  of  this  rule  is  answering  a  position  that  is  not  main- 
tained by  the  opposite  side — the  misapprehension  or  change  of 
the  issue.  Inexperienced  and  loose  reasoners  often  reply  to 
more  than  is  alleged ;  \vhile  it  is  one  of  the  most  common 
forms  of  sophistry  to  answer  less ;  a  subordinate  point  is  taken 
and  the  rest  is  left  untouched. 

2.  Avoid  Avasting  time  on  irrelevant  and  trivial  parts  of  the 
opposite  argument.  It  is  not  necessary  to  notice  every  weak- 
ness and  defect;  the  strong  points — those  on  which  the  decision 
of  the  question  depends — are  the  only  ones  to  be  discussed. 
Irrelevant  topics  are  often  introduced  by  sophistical  reasoners 
to  draw  the  attention  of  their  opponents  from  the  essential 


Sec.  121  ARGUMENT.  203 

points.  A  cautious  reasoner  will  never  allow  himself  to  be 
deceived  by  such  arts,  but  will  pass  over  all  foreign  and  un- 
necessary matter  and  seize  on  that  which  is  vital  to  the  ques- 
tion. 

3.  State  the  arguments  to  be  answered  candidly  and  forcibly. 
It  is  characteristic  of  all  great  reasoners  to  exhibit  boldly  in  its 
full  strength  the  argument  they  intend  to  subvert. 

4.  It  is  often  expedient  to  reduce  an  argument  to  its  strict 
logical  form  ;  to  supply  suppressed  premises ;  to  separate  a  com- 
plex chain  of  reasoning  into  its  parts,  and  arrange  them  so  that 
they  can  be  answered  in  order.     Besides  exhibiting  the  argu- 
ment with  greater  distinctness,  we  are  thus  frequently  able  to 
expose  the  weakness  of  the  opposite  side,  by  showing  that 
many  arguments  apparently  distinct  are  in  reality  but  repeti- 
tions of  a  single  argument. 

5.  If  any  of  the  objections  urged  are  found  to  be  unanswer- 
able, their  validity  should  be  acknowledged.     A  disputant  will 
never  gain  any  thing  by  attempting  to  hold  a  manifestly  unten- 
able position. 

6.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  to  refute  an  argument  is 
not  the  same  thing  as  proving  a  thesis  or  disproving  a  position 
of  the  opposite  side.     The  reasons  brought  forward  may  be 
shown  to  be  insufficient,  and  the  proposition  nevertheless  be 
true.     To  complete  the  work  of  refutation,  we  should,  after 
having  shown  that  the  arguments  produced  are  not  sufficient 
to  establish  the  truth  of  a  particular  proposition,  proceed  in  the 
next  place  to  show  that  there  are  unanswerable,  positive  argu- 
ments against  it. 

7.  Finally,  we  should  ascertain  and  exhibit  the  grounds  of 
the  erroneous  opinion,  or,  in  other  words,  account  for  its  origin. 
The  refutation  of  an  error  is  never  complete  and  entirely  satis- 
factory until  this  is  done. 

121.  Scheme  and  Topics  of  an  Argument. — The  points  to 
be  considered  in  constructing  an  argument,  and  the  topics  to 
be  used,  are  given  in  the  following  scheme.  It  is  very  seldom 
that  the  scheme  just  as  it  is  here  presented  is  adapted  to  an 


204  ELEMENTARY  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE.    Sec.  121 

actual  discourse.  The  peculiar  aim  of  a  discourse  and  the  cir- 
cumstances of  the  case  will  determine  what  order  should  be 
observed.  It  must  be  remembered  also  that  not  all  of  the 
topics  can  be  used  in  every  question.  The  scheme  only  ex- 
hibits the  essential  parts  of  a  complete  argumentation;  the 
proper  use  of  it  depends  on  the  intelligence  and  judgment  of 
the  pupil. 

1.  Introduction  or  Preface, — Various  topics  may  be  used, 
as,  1.  The  importance  of  the  question  either  in  itself  or  from 
its  connection  with  questions  of  acknowledged  importance.     It 
may  be  shown  how  the  decision  of  this  question  will  affect  that 
of  others.     2.  The  circumstances  that  have  led  to  the  dispute; 
the  origin,  spread,  effects  of  erroneous  views  on  the  subject. 

II.  Preparation  of  the  question,  including — 1.  An  expli- 
cation more  or  less  full  of  all  the  terms  of  the  question  that  are 
liable  to  be  misunderstood.     The  topics  to  be  employed  are 
given  in  sec.  107. 

2.  The  state  of  the  controversy,  which  involves: 

(a)  An  explicit  statement  of  what  is  held  in  common  or  con- 
ceded by  all  sides,  and  which  therefore  is  excluded  from  the 
dispute. 

(b)  A  statement  with  all  necessary  qualifications  and  limita- 
tions of  the  question  proposed  for  decision. 

(c)  A  brief,  candid  declaration  of  the  various  opinions  on 
the  subject. 

(d)  The  enouncement  of  the  thesis,  or  proposition  we  intend 
to  confirm. 

III.  Confirmation,  or  proof  of  the  truth  of  the  thesis.     The 
kind  of  proofs  to  be  employed,  and  their  order,  will  vary  with 
the  nature  of  the  question,  of  the  controversy,  etc. 

The  topics  to  be  used  in  searching  for  proofs  are:  1.  Defi- 
nition of  the  fundamental  notions  of  the  thesis.  2.  Genus  and 
species  (reason  from  the  genus  to  species,  or,  as  in  induction, 
from  the  species  to  the  genus).  3.  Cause  and  effect.  4.  Sim- 


Sec,  121  ARGUMENT.  205 

*•  ' 

ilarity  and  difference.     5.  Testimony  and  authority.    6.  Con- 
comitant circumstances,  as  of  time,  place,  manner,  etc. 

IV.  Refutation,  which  includes: 

1.  The  setting  aside  of  the  exceptions,  limitations,  and  dis- 
tinctions that  have  been  made  by  an  opponent. 

2.  Answering  objections  made  to  our  arguments. 

(a)  Is  the  objection  pertinent?  does  it  contradict  what  is 
advanced  by  us  ?     If  it  does  not,  it  is  to  be  thrown  aside  as 
foreign  to  the  question.     It  will  suffice  to  show  that  it  does 
not  meet  any  position  of  ours. 

(b)  Is  the  form  of  the  reasoning  correct?  i.  e.,  is  the  con- 
clusion fairly  deduced  from  the  premises  1 

(c)  Are  both  the  premises  true  f 

3.  Refutation  of  the  arguments  adduced  to  prove  the  counter- 
position. 

4.  Positive  arguments  to  show  the  falsehood  of  the  opposite 
opinion. 

V.  Conclusion,   containing  a  recapitulation  of  the  mam 
points. 


PAET  IV. 


THE  PRINCIPAL  FORMS  OF  PROSE. 


122.  Preliminary. — In  this  part  we  shall  consider  the  prin- 
cipal forms  of  prose  discourse. 

It  is  very  difficult,  perhaps  impossible,  to  make  a  satisfactory 
classification  of  literary  productions.  Their  number  is  so  great 
and  they  are  susceptible  of  so  many  modifications  and  combi- 
nations that  we  are  frequently  left  in  doubt  as  to  the  class  to 
which  a  particular  work  belongs.  u  Genius/7  says  Lessing, 
"  laughs  at  the  restrictions  of  critics." 

Several  divisions  of  prose. — Prose,  taken  in  the  limited 
sense  in  which  we  have  employed  the  word  as  denoting  com- 
positions designed  to  accomplish  an  outward  end,  that  is,  to 
inform  and  instruct,  to  convince,  and  to  persuade,  admits  of 
several  divisions. 

1.  It  is  divided  into  oral  and  written  discourse.    A  discourse 
intended  to  be  heard  by  an  audience  composed  of  a  number  of 
persons  differs  in  its  materials,  form,  and  style  from  one  that 
can  be  deliberately  read. 

2.  It  is  divided  as  to  external  form  without  reference  to  its 
cgntents  into  continuous  discourse,  in  which  the  development 
of  the  theme  proceeds  without  interruption ;  dialogue,  in  which 
two  or  more  take  part  in  developing  the  theme;  letters,  which 
are  directed  to  an  absent  person,  and  are  a  substitute  for  oral 
communication. 

(206) 


Sec,  124     DIALOGUE  AND  EPISTOLARY  PROSE.  207 

3.  It  is  divided  as  to  its  matter  and  end  into  didactic  prose, 
historical  prose,  and  oratorical  prose. 


CHAPTEK  I. 

THE  DIALOGUE  AND  EPISTOLARY  PROSE. 

123.  Introductory. — The  continuous  method  being  adapted 
to  all  subjects  that  require  an  uninterrupted  development  of 
their  contents,  is  the  method  almost  universally  employed  in 
literary  works.     It  will  be  fully  illustrated  in  the  following 
chapters.     This  chapter  is  confined  to  the  consideration  of  the 
dialogue  and  epistolary  prose. 

124.  The  Dialogue. — In  a  dialogue  there  is  a  communica- 
tion of  different  and  opposing  views  on  a  particular  subject 
between  two  or  more  speakers.     It  is  an  imitation  of  an  actual 
conversation,  and  may  be  employed  to  exhibit  a  character,  un- 
fold an  action,  or  discuss  a  truth.     The  rules  cf  rhetoric  apply 
to  the  last  mentioned  use. 

The  characters. — The  characters  represented  as  taking  part 
in  a  dialogue  should  be  persons,  not  mere  abstractions — such  as 
virtues  and  vices — and  each  distinguished  fr  m  the  others  by 
his  peculiar  modes  of  thought  and  feeling.  When  abstract 
qualities  are  introduced  instead  of  persons,  the  dialogue  is 
without  life  and  reality ;  when  the  characters  are  not  discrim- 
inated, there  is  no  interchange  of  opinions.  The  characters 
may  be  fictitious  or  taken  from  history  or  from  contempo- 
raries. 

Subjects. — The  only  subjects  suitable  for  a  dialogue  are 
those  which  admit  of  being  contemplated  from  different  points 
of  view  and  give  rise  to  controversies  in  which  differences  of 


208  PRINCIPAL  FORMS  OF  PROSE.  Sec.  124 

character  can  manifest  themselves.  This  kind  of  composition 
is  adapted  particularly  to  the  analytical  method  of  investiga- 
tion. It  affords  an  opportunity  of  tracing  the  subject  through 
its  successive  stages,  and  of  bringing  forward  and  removing 
misapprehensions,  difficulties,  and  objections. 

125.  The  Requisites  of  a  Dialogue. — The  qualities  of  a 
properly  constructed  dialogue  are  as  follows:  1.  It  must  ex- 
hibit a  conflict  of  views  resulting  in  a  mutual  understanding. 
A  dialogue  is  neither  a  series  of  questions  and  answers,  nor  a 
monologue,  but  the  unfolding  of  a  theme  by  the  exchange 
of  opposite  arguments  and  opinions.  The  conflicting  views 
ought  to  be  exhibited  in  their  full  force  by  their  respective 
representatives.  At  the  same  time,  since  the  great  aim  of  the 
dialogue  is  not  merely  to  manifest  differences  but  to  reconcile 
them  and  lead  to  a  mutual  agreement  between  the  parties,  a 
reconciliation  must  grow  naturally  and  necessarily  out  of  the 
conflict  exhibited  in  the  body  of  the  dialogue. 

2.  It  must  be  appropriate  to  the  subject  and  to  the  char- 
acters taking  part  in  it.     When  well  known  persons  are  intro- 
duced as  speakers,  no  views  should  be  ascribed  to  them  incon- 
sistent with  their  known  character  and  opinions:    when  the 
characters  are  fictitious  their  consistency  must  be  preserved 
throughout.     The  tone  of  the  dialogue  should  be  influenced  by 
the  circumstances  of  time  and  place  in  which  it  is  represented 
as  being  held 5    the  scene  should  harmonize  with  the  subject 
discussed. 

3.  Much  greater  liberty  of  arrangement  is  allowed  than  in 
continuous  discourse.     Instead  of  an  unbroken  development  of 
the  theme  the  course  of  thought  is  modified  by  the  questions, 
answers,  and  remarks  of  the  different  parties.     Digressions  are 
permitted  when  they  throw  light  on  the  point  under  considera- 
tion, .  or  add  to  the  interest  and  liveliness  of  the  discourse. 
But  there  is  a  real  and  natural  connection  between  the  thoughts, 
and  every  question  and  answer  should  be  a  response  to  what 
has  just  preceded. 

4.  A  dialogue  is  a  work  of  art?  and  while  retaining  the 


Sec.  127    DIALOGUE  AND  EPISTOLARY  PROSE.  209 

features  of  actual  conversation,  it  is  elevated  above  it.  Greater 
clearness,  precision,  and  elegance;  greater  nicety  in  the 
choice  of  words  and  care  in  the  structure  of  sentences,  and  a 
irreater  elevation  of  style  distinguish  it  from  ordinary  conversa- 
tion. 

126.  Epistolary  Prose. — A  letter  is  a  communication  of 
facts  and  thoughts  to  an  absent  person.     A  correspondence 
may  be  regarded  as  a  conversation  in  writing,  and  the  letter  as 
a  substitute  for  oral  communication.     Narration,  description, 
exposition,  argument,  and  persuasion  may  enter  into  it;    its 
subjects  may  be  drawn  from  literature,  science,  art,  private  or 
public  affairs. 

Numerous  divisions  of  letters  have  been  made;  the  most 
familiar  is  into  business  letters,  occasional  letters  (of  ceremony, 
politeness,  and  the  like),  didactic  letters,  and  letters  of  friend- 
ship. Most  of  those  that  have  a  place  in  literature  belong  to 
the  last-named  class. 

It  would  be  tedious  and  useless  to  give  special  rules  for  these 
different  classes.  We  shall  mention  briefly  the  general  char- 
acteristics of  epistolary  prose. 

127.  Its  general  characteristics. — 1.  Unity,  so  essential  a 
quality  of  other  species  of  composition,  is  not  looked  for  in  a 
letter.     A  number  of  topics,  having  no  connection  with  each 
other,  can  be  introduced,  their  selection  being  determined  by 
their  relation  to  the  one  addressed;  and  no  formal  transition  is 
needed  in  passing  from  one  topic  to  another. 

2.  The  epistolary  style  is  an  imitation  of  the  conversation  of 
intelligent  and  refined  persons.  It  is  free  from  formality, 
pedantry,  and  whatever  gives  an  appearance  of  labor.  To 
elaborate  a  letter,  as  we  would  a  purely  literary  production, 
would  destroy  its  charm,  and  even  its  distinctive  character.  A 
letter  never  pleases  if  written  for  the  public.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  is  free  from  the  faults  of  ordinary  conversation.  It  is 
purer  and  more  correct;  the  rapidity  of  oral  discourse  allows 
many  violations  of  grammatical  law  to  pass  unnoticed,  which 

Rlivt.  Ifc 


210  PRINCIPAL  FORMS  OF  PROSE.  Sec.  127 

are  great  blemishes  in  a  written  composition.  It  is  less  prolix; 
what,  in  a  conversation  is  expanded  into  its  details,  is  con- 
veyed in  a  few  lines,  often  but  lightly  indicated,  the  reader 
being  left  to  fill  up  the  outline.  At  the  same  time  it  demands 
a  high  degree  of  clearness,  since  the  person  to  whom  the  com- 
munication is  made  is  absent,  and  has  not  an  opportunity  to 
clear  up  difficulties  immediately  by  proposing  questions. 

3.  The  natural  course  of  thought  and  feeling  is  followed. 
The  effort  to  appear  witty  and  elegant,  a  profusion  of  orna- 
ments, and  rhetorical  display  are  incompatible  with  the  nature 
and  aim  of  this  kind  of  composition.     The  sentences  should  be 
short  and  simple  ;  periods  are  here  out  of  place. 

4.  Appropriateness  is  a  most  important  quality.     It  is  an 
unpardonable  fault  in  a  letter  to  be  wanting  in  appropriateness 
— either  in  matter  or  form — to  the  character  and  circumstances 
of  the  recipient,  and  to  the  relations  existing  between  him  and 
the  writer.     Frankness  and  self-respect  joined  to  a  delicate 
consideration  for  the  character,  position,  and  claims  of  the  one 
addressed  must  give  to  a  letter  its  tone;  otherwise,  instead  of 
producing  a  favorable  impression,  it  will  orfend  and  fail  to 
attain  its  object. 

This  rule  involves  a  strict  observance  of  the  conventional- 
ities and  mechanical  details  of  a  letter,  such  as  the  date  and 
place  of  writing,  the  forms  of  address,  subscription,  name  of 
the  recipient. 


CHAPTEE  II. 

DIDACTIC    PROSE. 

128.  What  is  included  in  Didactic  Prose? — Didactic  prose 
includes  all  compositions  the  aim  of  which  is  to  give  instruc- 
tion. It  addresses  the  understanding,  and  is  concerned  only 
with  general  and  abstract  truths.  What  is  individual  and 
concrete  is  admitted  merely  as  subservient  to  the  general.  All 
appeals  to  feeling  and  passion  are  excluded  from  it,  as  are  also 


Sec.  129  DIDACTIC  PROSE.  211 

narration  and  description  that  give  actual  facts  as  such  without 
investigating  the  general  principles  involved  in  them. 

The  forms  of  Didactic  Prose  are :  Scientific  prose,  popu- 
lar scientific  prose,  and  criticism. 

129.  Scientific  Prose. — Scientific,  sometimes  called  dog- 
matic, prose  is  the  methodical  presentation  of  the  principles  of 
a  science.  Its  general  characteristics  are: 

1.  Its  aim  is  to  convey  a  complete  and  connected  view  of 
the  truth,  which  the  reader  can  understand  and  appropriate. 

2.  Its  matter  must  have  the  characters  of  real  truth  and 
importance.     On  the  part  of  the  writer,  a  thorough  knowledge 
of  the  subject  in  its  principles  and  history  is  required. 

3.  As  in  this  species  of  discourse  the  understanding  is  prin- 
cipally addressed,  the  form  must  be  adapted  to   the  require- 
ments of  the  understanding.     These  are  clearness,  distinctness, 
completeness,  certainty,  and  method.     The  beauty  of  didactic 
prose  consists  in  the  combination  of  the  real  truth   of  the 
thoughts  and  the  logical  perfection  of  the  form. 

4.  There  is  no  communication  of  knowledge  where  the  truth 
is  not  understood  in  its  relation  to  other  truths.     It  is  therefore 
necessary  that  the  separate  statements  be  not  only  intelligible 
in  themselves,  but  be  seen  in  their  proportions  and  bearings; 
as  included  in  or  growing  out  of  others;  as  connected  with 
what  precedes  and  as  leading  to  what  follows. 

5.  Perspicuity  is  an  essential  requisite.     It  is  to  be  remem- 
bered that  this  is  a  relative  quality,  being  determined  in  part 
by  the  nature  of  the  matter,  and  in  part  by  relation  of  the 
subject  to  the  hearer. 

There  are  subjects  which,  from  the  nature  of  the  matter,  are 
not  capable  of  being  clearly  exhibited.  Perspicuity  is  not  to 
be  purchased  at  the  cost  of  accuracy  and  thoroughness.  Scien- 
tific clearness, — the  clearness  of  what  is  known  to  a  few,  or 
may  be  readily  discovered  by  their  self-activity,  is  not  such  as 
is  intelligible  to  all.  The  law  of  perspicuity  is  violated  by 
attempting  to  discuss  scientifically  subjects  which  lie  within 


212  PRINCIPAL  FORMS  OF  PROSE.  Sec,  129 

the  sphere  of  speculation  only ;  by  carrying  analysis  too  far ; 
by  seeking  to  define  and  prove  primitive  facts. 

The  relation  of  the  reader  to  the  subject  must  also  be  taken 
into  account  in  pronouncing  upon  the  clearness  or  want  of 
clearness  of  a  scientific  discourse.  It  is  a  writer's  privilege  to 
select  the  class  whose  requirements  he  will  endeavor  to  meet. 
If  the  reader  does  not  stand  upon  the  level,  possess  the  attain- 
ments and  powers  of  thought  which  the  writer  presupposes  in 
Ifts  readers,  he  will  find  the  work  obscure.  If  the  work  is  in- 
tended for  those  already  informed  on  the  subject,  an  acquaint- 
ance with  the  elementary  notions  and  technical  terms,  the 
history  of  the  science,  and  the  various  controversies  that  have 
been  agitated,  will  be  presumed;  inferences  may  be  drawn  and 
allusions  made,  which  will  be  unintelligible  to  others. 

130.  The  use  of  general  terms, — From  the  nature  of  the 
matter  of  didactic  discourse,  general  terms  are  freely  em- 
ployed. As  these  are  but  symbols  which  do  not  convey  dis- 
tinct images  to  the  mind,  they  are  liable  to  be  misunderstood. 
It  is  a  fault  to  accumulate  them;  where  it  does  not  interfere 
with  the  ends  of  the  discourse,  concrete  terms  should  be  used. 
The  excessive  employment  of  abstract  words  gives  an  in- 
distinctness to  the  presentation.  The  idea  may  be  gathered, 
but  it  requires  an  effort,  and  the  impression  made  is  always 
feeble. 

The  Latin  element  of  our  language  is  more  extensively  used 
in  this  species  of  composition  than  in  any  of  the  others.  This 
is  inevitable.  Authors  in  whose  writings  upon  popular  sub- 
jects the  Anglo-Saxon  element  predominates  prefer  Latin 
terms  in  scientific  discussions. 

The  use  of  technical  terms. — The  use  of  technical  terms  is 
a  distinctive  peculiarity  of  didactic  prose.  With  the  develop- 
ment of  science,  there  must  grow  up  a  nomenclature.  The 
generalizations  of  science  are  not  those  of  the  vulgar ;  and  the 
difference  between  scientific  and  loose  popular  thinking  can  not 
but  be  manifested  in  the  use  of  language.  The  objections  to 


Sec.  130  DIDACTIC  PROSE.  -'13 

the  employment  of  technical  terms  in  scientific  treatises  are 
frivolous.  Such  terms  are  necessary  for  many  reasons.  (1) 
They  are  needed  to  express  combinations  of  thoughts  for  which 
the  language  has  no  name.  Many  qualities  and  relations  of 
objects  which  are  neglected  in  popular  thinking  require  to  be 
specially  designated  in  science.  (2)  Ordinary  words  are  used 
loosely,  and  are  applied  to  objects  with  which  they  have  no 
real  connection;  clearness  and  distinctness  require  that  such 
occasions  of  error  be  avoided.  (3)  Without  technical  terms, 
the  work  of  scientific  analysis  and  criticism  is  impossible. 
Many  useless  controversies  have  originated  in  a  defective  no- 
menclature,  and  many  erroneous  views  have  been  perpetuated 
in  the  same  manner.  (4)  Technical  terms  are  conducive  to 
brevity  as  well  as  to  precision.  They  express  by  a  single  word 
combinations  which,  without  them,  could  be  coin' eyed  but 
vaguely  by  a  tedious  circumlocution.  One  who  understands 
the  nomenclature  of  a  science,  possesses  a  large  body  of  analy- 
ses, which  he  could  not  otherwise  possess,  and  the  means  of 

clear  and  rapid  thinking. 

* 

Sources  of  technical  terms. — Technical  terms  are  formed 
in  different  ways.  (1)  New  meanings  are  sometimes  given 
to  words  in  actual  use.  (2)  Words  that  have  fallen  into  dis- 
use may  be  revived.  (3)  Compounds  and  derivatives  may  be 
formed  from  existing  materials.  (4)  Terms  may  be  drawn 
from  foreign  languages.  The  Latin,  and  more  especially  the 
Greek  language,  are  well  adapted  to  furnish  terms  for  a  scien- 
tific nomenclature.  Native  terms  are  unfit,  as  they  designate 
objects  by  some  accidental,  arbitrary  relation,  and  often  sug- 
gest erroneous  views.  Terms  are  required  that  express  pre- 
cisely the  object,  without  any  disturbing  or  misleading  associa- 
tions. 

Under  what  conditions  to  be  used. — The  use  of  technical 
terms  is  subject  to  the  following  conditions : 

1.  It  is  not  necessary  or  even  desirable  to  have  a  separate 
word  for  each  distinct  notion.  To 


214  PRINCIPAL  FORMS  OF  PROSE.  Sec.  130 

a  complicated  nomenclature   harder  to   understand  than  the 
subject  itself. 

2.  The  technical  term  should  express  the  idea  with  greater 
precision  than  the  common  word. 

3.  It  should  be  formed  according  to  the  laws  of  the  lan- 
guage. 

4.  It  should  be  fitted  to  form  compounds  and  conjugates. 

5.  It  should  be  free  from  ambiguity,  and  be  immediately 
intelligible. 

131,  Use  of  Figurative  Language. — Figurative  language 
is  admissible  only  to  a  limited  extent.     Comparisons,  illustra- 
ting the  less  known  by  what  is  better  known,  and  contrast,  are 
most  frequently  employed.     The  extended  simile  is  preferred 
to  the  metaphor.     The  figures  are  used  to  illustrate,  and  should 
be  drawn  from  familiar  objects.     The  frequent  use  of  them 
imparts  an  air  of  flippancy  to  the  style,  and  is  often  an  indica- 
tion of  a  want  of  mastery  of  the  subject. 

In  reference  to  the  use  of  figures,  and  to  style  in  general, 
every  thing  must  be  subordinated  to  the  main  end, — the  setting 
forth  of  the  truth.  Beauty  of  style  is  not  to  be  sought  at  the 
cost  of  the  truth  and  logical  perfection  of  the  thoughts.  What- 
ever excites  feelings  foreign  to  the  matter  in  hand,  or  weakens 
the  interest  in  the  truth  presented,  is  a  blemish.  A  grave, 
simple  style  is  the  only  one  befitting  this  class  of  composi- 
tions. 

132.  Kinds  of  Scientific  Prose. — To  scientific  prose  belong 
text-books  and  disquisitions. 

1.  Text-books. — Text-books  contain  a  complete  but  sum- 
mary statement  of  the  principles  of  a  science.  They  are  pre- 
pared for  students  of  different  stages  of  advancement:  one 
designed  for  elementary  schools  differs  in  matter  and  manner 
of  treating  the  subject  from  one  intended  for  academies  and 
colleges. 

It  is  not  the  aim  of  a  text-book  to  investigate  particular  doc- 


Sec.  133  DIDACTIC  PKOSE.  215 

trines  or  discuss  disputed  points.  It  assumes  that  the  princi- 
ples are  already  settled,  and  presents  them  in  such  a  form  that 
they  may  be  understood  and  appropriated  by  those  for  whom 
the  work  is  prepared.  It  is  entirely  expository,  consisting  of 
definitions,  divisions,  rules,  and  examples  methodically  ar- 
ranged; argument  finds  but  little  place  in  it.  Its  style  ought 
to  be  precise,  perspicuous,  and  destitute  of  ornament;  as  it 
supposes  a  living  teacher,  the  ideas  and  rules  need  not  be  am- 
plified. 

2.  Disquisitions. — By  a  disquisition  is  meant  a  connected 
and  extended  discussion  of  a  scientific  theme.  It  differs  from 
a  text-book  in  that  its  aim  is  not  to  give  a  summary  statement 
of  principles  assumed  to  be  true;  on  the  contrary,  it  proposes 
to  establish  a  new  or  disputed  doctrine,  or  to  overthrow  or  cor- 
rect one  that  is  held  to  be  true.  The  discussion  may  embrace 
a  whole  science  or  only  some  of  its  principles.  Argument 
accordingly  predominates  in  this  class  of  composition.  The 
author  aims  to  produce  conviction ;  he  sets  forth  the  reasons 
for  what  lie  advances,  shows  how  the  results  have  been  reached, 
enumerates  difficulties,  shows  how  they  are  overcome;  and 
examines  and  confutes  opposing  theories. 

Being  intended  for  those  who  have  already  some  knowledge 
of  the  subject,  the  mode  of  discussion  differs  from  that  adopted 
in  text-books:  it  is  distinguished  by  a  freer  use  of  technical 
terms;  an  absence  of  examples,  a  greater  amplification  of 
statement,  and  a  more  elaborate  structure  of  sentences. 

133.  Popular  Scientific  Prose. — A  very  important  class  of 
works  is  that  in  which  scientific  truth  is  conveyed  in  a  popular 
form.  Works,  which  like  text-books  and  disquisitions  are 
fitted  for  the  use  of  but  a  few,  can  hardly  be  classed  among 
literary  productions ;  but  the  popular  presentations  of  science 
deserve  a  high  place  in  literature.  They  require  a  combination 
of  qualities  rarely  found.  To  convey  a  knowledge  of  a  scien- 
tific subject  to  those  ignorant  of  it  implies  a  complete  mastery 
of  the  subject.  Popularity  is  not  to  be  confounded  with  a 


216  PRINCIPAL  FOKMS  OF  PROSE.  Sec.  133 

superficial  treatment  of  a  theme:  there  may  be  entertaining 
essays,  but  if  the  entertainment  has  been  purchased  at  the  cost 
of  truth,  completeness,  and  precision,  they  can  have  no  value. 
Only  one  who  knows  a  subject  intimately  is  competent  to 
select  the  aspects  that  are  best  adapted  to  the  comprehension 
of  the  ignorant.  As  in  such  productions  technical  terms  are 
discarded,  there  must  be  added  to  the  mastery  of  the  subject,  a 
mastery  of  language  that  is  equally  rare. 

134.  Criticism. — The  peculiarity  of  criticism  is  that  it  de- 
velops truth  not  systematically  as  in  the  other  forms  of  didactic 
composition,  but  in  the  examination  of  a  production  of  litera- 
ture, science,  or  art.  The  most  frequent  form  in  which  it 
appears  at  the  present  day  is  that  of  reviews. 

The  aim  of  literary  criticism  is  to  determine  how  far  a  work 
corresponds  to  the  idea  of  the  class  to  which  it  belongs.  The 
work  is  considered  as  a  whole.  The  critic  enters  into  the 
writer's  train  of  thought,  discovers  the  theme  or  main  idea  of 
the  work;  and  ascertains  to  what  class  of  literature  it  is  to  be 
referred.  If  these  conditions  are  not  fulfilled  the  criticism  is 
arbitrary  and  worthless.  Two  great  evils  result  from  neglect- 
ing this  rule.  In  the  first  place,  the  critic  singles  out  partic- 
ular passages  for  praise  or  censure,  without  noticing  their 
connection  with  the  whole.  In  this  case  the  work  is  not  criti- 
cised; only  some  details,  chosen  at  the  whim  of  the  critic,  are 
examined.  In  the  next  place,  works  are  criticised  without 
regard  to  the  principles  of  the  class  of  compositions  to  which 
they  belong.  Entirely  different  tests  ought  to  be  applied  to  a 
scientific  work,  from  those  applied  to  an  oratorical ;  so  the  laws 
of  lyric  poetry  are  not  the  same  as  those  of  dramatic.  Much 
of  the  prevailing  criticism  assumes  that  there  are  no  fixed 
principles  of  literature,  and  that  the  only  test  of  the  merits  of  a 
work  is  the  feeling  of  the  individual  critic. 


Sec,  136  HISTOKICAL  PKOSE.  217 

CHAPTER  III. 

HISTORICAL  PROSE. 

135,  What  is  comprehended  in  History. — History  is  the 
narration  of  the  important  events  in  the  life  of  an  individual  or 
a  nation.     It  embraces  "all  that  pertains  to  the  outward  or 
inward  life  of  humanity,  and  enters  essentially  into  its  social, 
political,  intellectual,  moral,  and  religious  progress  and  devel- 
opment.    It  comprehends  the  thoughts,  words,  deeds,  and  the 
prosperous  and  adverse  events  which  constitute  the  past,  and 
which  have  produced  the  existing  state  of  civilized  society." 
Schaff,  History  of  the  Apostolic  Church,   General  Intro- 
duction. 

136.  Wrong  methods  of  Historical  composition. — History 
is  one  of  the  oldest  kinds  of  prose  composition,  and  has  always 
been  one  of  the  most  interesting  and  instructive.     It  is  also 
one  of  the  most  difficult.     Only  in  the  present  century  have 
there  grown  up  a  proper  appreciation  of  its  importance  and 
correct  views  of  the  method  of  writing  it.     There  are  two  de- 
fective methods  of  historical  composition  which  are  very  preva- 
lent. 

1st.  History 'deals  with  individual  concrete  facts,  and  aims 
to  embody  them  in  an  affecting  picturesque  narrative;  it  is 
closely  related  to  poetry  and  romance.  If  it  is  written  with 
a  view  simply  to  give  a  brilliant  narrative  that  shall  please  the 
imagination  and  satisfy  curiosity,  it  becomes  a  romance;  and 
realizes  none  of  the  ends  for  which  history  is  written. 

2d.  If  the  writer  gives  prominence  to  the  principles  which 
can  be  derived  from  the  facts,  and  make  his  work  a  depository 
of  general  views,  that  gratify  the  speculative  intellect,  he  does 
not  write  history;  his  work  is  a  scientific  treatise,  wanting  in 
the  essential  features  of  genuine  history.  Of  history,  written 
according  to  this  method,  Guizot  says:  "It  no  longer  wears  its 
former  real  and  living  physiognomy ;  individual  characters  take 

Rhet.  19 


218  PKINCIPAL  FORMS  OF  PKOSE.  Sec.  136 

up  less  space,  and  no  longer  appear  under  living  forms ;  the 
mention  of  names  becomes  rarer  ;  the  narrative  of  events  and 
the  description  of  men  are  more  its  pretext  than  its  subject; 
all  becomes  generalized;  history  becomes  a  series  of  disserta- 
tions on  the  progress  of  the  human  race,  and  the  historian 
seems  to  call  up  the  skeleton  of  the  past,  in  order  to  hang  upon 
it  general  ideas  and  reflections.  This  occurred  in  the  last 
century:  the  English  historians  of  that  period,  Robertson, 
Gibbon,  Hume,  have  represented  history  under  that  aspect; 
most  of  the  German  writers  still  follow  the  same  system.  The 
philosophy  of  history  predominates.  History,  properly  so-called, 
is  not  to  be  found  in  them." 

137.  Genuine  Historical  Method. — A  perfect  history  avoids 
both  extremes.  It  gives  to  imagination  and  reason  their  due; 
and  combines  vivid  narration  with  broad  philosophical  views. 
History  is  not  science.  It  exhibits  individual  facts,  and  is  not 
a  system  of  notions  and  general  principles:  it  does  not  admit 
of  elaborate  processes  of  reasoning;  it  does  not  lay  down  a 
general  principle  and  proceed  to  deduce  particular  truths  from 
it;  it  tells,  not  what  generally  is,  or  what  must  be,  but  facts 
that  once  occurred  and  that  will  never  occur  again. 

At  the  same  time  it  aspires  to  accomplish  more  than  to 
gratify  curiosity.  The  interest  that  we  feel  in  the  past  is  some- 
thing more  than  a  mere  desire  to  know  what  has  been;  we 
would  understand  the  present  and  anticipate  the  future. 

"Men  expect  from  history,"  says  Guizot,  "experience  anal- 
ogous to  the  wants  they  feel,  to  the  life  they  live ;  they  desire 
to  understand  the  real  nature  and  hidden  springs  of  institutions; 
to  enter  into  the  movements  of  parties,  to  follow  them  in  their 
combinations,  to  study  the  secret  of  the  influence  of  the  masses, 
and  of  the  action  of  individuals.  Men  and  things  must  resus- 
citate before  them,  no  longer  merely  as  an  interest  or  diversion, 
but  as  a  revelation  of  how  rights,  liberties,  and  power  are  to  be 
acquired,  exercised,  and  defended;  how  to  combine  opinions, 
interests,  passions,  the  necessities  of  circumstances,  all  the 
elements  of  active  political  life.  This  is  what  history  becomes 


Sec.  138  HISTORICAL  PROSE.  219 

for  free  nations:  it  is  from  that  point  of  view  that  Thucydides 
wrote  the  history  of  the  Feloponnesian  war,  and  Clarendon  and 
Bishop  Burnet,  that  of  the  English  revolution.  .  .  .  The 
need  of  broad  philosophical  views  of  the  course  of  human 
a  flairs  and  progress  of  society  has  gained  strength  instead  of 
becoming  extinguished;  we  have  not  ceased  to  look  to  facts 
for  something  more  than  mere  narratives;  we  still  expect  them 
to  be  summed  up  in  general  ideas,  and  to  furnish  us  with  those 
great  results  which  throw  light  on  the  sciences  of  legislation 
and  political  economy,  and  on  the  vast  study  of  the  destiny  of 
the  human  race.  Far,  then,  from  being  less  inclined  to  consider 
history  under  a  philosophic  point  of  view,  it  seems  to  have 
acquired  a  wider  interest  in  this  respect." 

In  attempting  to  meet  this  practical  interest  history  does  not 
sacrifice  its  distinctive  character  as  an  independent  narrative 
of  events.  It  is  not  written  with  a  view  to  establishing  a 
theory,  or  enforcing  a  moral  or  religious  truth;  when  facts  are 
thus  selected  and  combined  we  have  didactic  or  oratorical  dis- 
course. The  authority  of  history  as  a  teacher  is  impaired  by 
thus  subordinating  it  to  any  didactic  end.  The  orator  may 
combine  facts  so  as  to  produce  the  impression  he  desires  to 
make,  but  the  historian  must  exhibit  them  as  they  actually  took 
place. 

138,  Essential  dualities.  1.  Truth. — The  first  requisite 
of  historical  composition  is  that  it  give  only  what  is  true. 
AVithout  this  the  essential  mark  of  history  is  wanting,  no  brill- 
iancy of  narration  nor  profoundness  of  reflection  can  com- 
pensate for  its  absence.  The  historian  appears  as  a  witness, 
and  in  assuming  the  office  pledges  himself  to  absolute  truthful- 
ness. His  work  must  be  a  faithful  reflection  of  the  past: 
reporting  nothing  false,  suppressing  no  truth  that  is  necessary 
to  the  exhibition  of  the  fact,  supplying  nothing,  mutilating 
and  distorting  nothing. 

No  rule  is  more  generally  violated.  Almost  every  writer  is 
betrayed  into  misrepresenting  events  and  characters  by  national 
prejudices,  party  spirit,  personal  attachments,  or  devotion  to 


220  PRINCIPAL  FORMS  OF  PROSE.  Sec.  138 

a  theory.  The  distorting  of  facts  to  suit  general  principles  is 
one  of  the  most  common  faults  in  writers  of  history.  The  ma- 
jority of  histories  are  partisan  in  their  character ;  the  writers 
carry  the  prejudices  and  passions  of  the  present  into  the  past, 
and  exaggerate,  suppress,  and  combine  circumstances  to  accord 
with  them. 

In  exacting  the  most  rigid  impartiality  of  the  historian,  it  is 
not  demanded  that  he  suppress  all  personal  feeling.  There  is 
a  false  objectivity  of  history  which  consists  in  the  absence  of 
all  feeling  and  interest  on  the  part  of  the  writer.  Narratives 
written  in  such  a  spirit  are  but  colorless,  characterless  details, 
destitute  of  literary  merit,  because  not  bearing  the  impress  of 
the  writer's  personality.  Indifference  of  this  kind,  far  from 
guarding  against  partiality,  leads  to  it.  The  historian  should 
have  fixed  convictions;  we  expect  him  to  feel  moral  indigna- 
tion at  wrong,  and  to  sympathize  with  what  is  noble  and  good. 
He  is  a  judge  as  well  as  a  witness ;  it  is  his  right  to  distribute 
praise  and  blame;  we  do  not  demand  that  he  shall  be  destitute 
of  feeling,  but  that  he  regulate  it  according  to  the  dictates  of 
truth  and  justice. 

2.  Local  color. — The  events  must  be  exhibited  with  the 
individual  features  and  details  that  belong  to  the  age  in  which 
they  took  place.  In  reading  of  rude  ages  and  peoples,  we 
should  be  made  to  feel  that  the  manners  and  institutions  are 
such  as  belong  to  barbarous  times.  The  historian  too  fre- 
quently transfers  to  the  past  the  institutions,  customs,  and 
views  of  the  present;  attributes  to  the  actors  motives  which 
belong  to  an  entirely  different  period,  and  judges  of  their 
actions  by  the  standards  of  the  present  day.  This  is  to  falsify 
history,  and  render  it  altogether  valueless.  What  utterly  false 
views  does  one  receive  of  the  past,  who  understands  the  terms 
king,  court,  religion,  in  mediaeval  history  as  designating  what 
is  understood  by  them  now! 

To  set  the  past  before  us  in  its  true  colors  the  historian  must 
have  a  powerful  and  vivid  imagination.  He  must  divest  him- 
self of  the  passions  and  prejudices  of  the  present,  and  enter  into 


Sec.  138  HISTORICAL  PROSE.  221 

the  modes  of  thought  and  feeling  of  entirely  different  ages, 
and  identify  himself  with  the  period  of  which  he  writes. 
Without  this  sympathy  he  can  not  understand  the  views  and 
characters  of  the  period,  and  can  not  reproduce  them  vividly 
or  even  truthfully. 

3.  The  historical  significance  of  facts  exhibited, — Events 
must  not  only  be  vividly  portrayed;  their  historical  significance 
must  be  made  apparent;  that  is,  their  meaning  and  importance 
for  the  growth  and  destiny  of  the  nation  or  the  individual. 
The  facts  are  shown  not  as  isolated  but  in  connection  with 
their  causes  and  effects.     The  main  event  is  exhibited  in  its 
rise;  its  necessity  is  shown,  with  all  that  contributed  to  it. 
The  tendency  of  many  writers  is  to  make  history  false  by  con- 
founding apparent  and  real  causes.     Instead  of  exhibiting  the 
whole  complexity  of  circumstances  out   of  which  an  event 
springs,  some  of  which  may  be  very  remote,  they  trace  it  to 
some  insignificant  circumstance  which  is  often  but  the  occasion 
not  the  cause.     It  is  the  oifice  of  the  historian  to  discover  and 
report  all  the  influences  that  have  combined  to   produce  a 
given  effect;    which  will  be   found  in  remote  events,  in  in- 
stitutions, in  individual   men,  and  in   the   dispensations   of 
Providence. 

4.  Completeness. — By  completeness  is  not  meant  that  all 
the  particulars  are  to  be  given.     This  is  impossible.     A  very 
small  proportion  of  circumstances  can  enter  into  a  narration. 
"Xo  picture  and  no  history,7'  says  Macaulay,  "can  present  us 
with  the  whole  truth;  but  those  are  the  best  pictures  and  the 
best  histories  which  exhibit  such  parts  of  the  truth  as  most 
nearly  produce   the   effect   of  the  whole."     Nothing    that  is 
essential  to  the  consistency  and  unity  of  the  whole,  or  to  ex- 
plain the  course  of  events,  can  be  omitted.     This  involves  care- 
ful discrimination  and  selection,  which  is  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant  conditions    of  writing  history.     The   heaping  up   of 
minute  details — the  endeavor  to  omit  nothing — has  been  pro- 
nounced a  fault  in  a  historian  next  to  that  of  falsehood.     "A 


222  PRINCIPAL  FORMS  OF  PROSE.  Sec.  138 

writer  may/7  as  Macaulay  says,  u  by  showing  nothing  but  the 
truth  produce  all  the  effects  of  falsehood.  It  perpetually  hap- 
pens that  one  writer  tells  less  truth  than  another,  merely 
because  he  tells  more  truths.'7 

It  is  in  his  skill  in  detecting  the  relations  of  facts,  discern- 
ing their  value,  correctly  interpreting  them,  and  distinguishing 
what  is  permanent  from  what  is  transitory,  what  is  essential 
from  what  is  accidental,  that  the  historian's  powers  of  general- 
ization and  his  philosophic  culture  are  shown.  The  exhibition 
of  facts  with  scrupulous  exactness  without  these  higher  qual- 
ities gives  us  chronicles  and  annals — the  materials  of  history  • 
but  there  is  wanting  a  correct  view  of  the  meaning  and  bear- 
ings of  the  events  reported.  These  the  historian  discovers;  he 
draws  from  the  rude  narratives  what  the  original  writers  never 
saw  in  them. 

139.  Historical  arrangement. — The  disposition  of  the  ma- 
terials is  an  important  and  difficult  part  of  the  historian's  task. 
There  is  no  one  method  that  can  be  exclusively  employed. 
The  mode  of  representation  varies  with  the  point  of  view  of 
the  writer,  and  the  subject  of  the  history. 

In  history,  as  in  every  literary  work,  unity  is  indispensable. 
Historical  unity  is  not  the  same  as  scientific  and  oratorical. 
It  resides  in  the  subject — in  the  society,  institution,  individual 
whose  life  is  narrated.  Whatever  is  connected  with  it  may 
be  incorporated  into  the  narrative.  But  such  fullness  is  never 
attempted.  Every  writer  contemplates  his  subject  from  a  par- 
ticular point  of  view,  which  determines  what  he  is  to  select 
and  what  omit.  The  first  condition  of  unity  is  to  reject  every 
thing  not  essential  to  the  faithful  representation  of  the  fact. 

The  difficulty  of  securing  unity  in  history  arises  in  part  from 
this — that  every  event  is  but  the  fragment  of  a  larger  whole, 
and  can  not  be  severed  from  it,  so  as  to  have  no  reference  to 
what  precedes  and  follows.  Hence  the  difficulty  of  finding  the 
beginning  and  close,  and  of  giving  a  complete,  well  rounded 
presentation  of  the  subject.  The  difficulty  is  increased  by  the 
great  number  of  events  and  topics  that  must  be  noticed  in 


Sec.  139  HISTORICAL  PROSE.  223 

modern  history;  as,  different  nations,  institutions,  arts,  man- 
ners, etc.  It  seems  almost  impossible  to  combine  these  numer- 
ous figures  into  one  picture — to  give  an  adequate  view  of  so 
many  different  objects,  and  at  the  same  time  preserve  the  con- 
tinuous movement  of  the  narrative. 

Various  methods  of  arranging  the  materials  of  history  have 
been  adopted. 

The  Chronological  Method, — The  chronological  method 
gives  the  events  in  the  order  of  their  occurrence.  Chronology 
lies  at  the  basis  of  all  historical  disposition.  But  the  exclusive 
employment  of  this  method  destroys  the  unity  of  the  narrative, 
separates  related  and  throws  together  heterogeneous  matter; 
and  produces  a  rude,  undigested  mass,  not  an  organic  whole. 
It  is  often  necessary  to  depart  from  it,  in  order  to  exhibit  events 
in  their  true  relations  and  significance.  UA  dry  and  heavy 
annalist,"  says  Fenelon,  "knows  no  other  order  but  that  of 
chronology.  He  repeats  a  fact  every  time  he  has  occasion  to 
mention  any  thing  that  depends  on  it.  He  dares  neither  set 
forward  nor  postpone  a  particular  narration.  But  a  historian 
that  has  a  true  genius,  out  of  twenty  places,  chooses  that  in 
which  a  fact  may  be  most  commodiously  set,  so  as  to  give  a 
light  to  all  the  rest.  Often  a  fact  mentioned  long  before  the 
order  of  time  it  happened  in,  clears  up  all  the  train  of  events 
that  paved  the  way  to  it.  Sometimes  another  incident  will 
appear  in  its  full  light  by  being  postponed,  for  then  it  is  intro- 
duced more  appositely  as  the  occasion  of  other  events.  Cicero 
compares  this  just  order  to  the  care  that  a  person  of  good  taste 
takes  to  place  fine  pictures  in  an  advantageous  light."  Letter 
to  the  French  Academy. 

The  Topical  Method. — The  topical  method  is  an  arrange- 
ment according  to  subjects.  The  matter  of  the  history  is  dis- 
tributed into  a  certain  number  of  heads,  and  the  history  of 
each  head  is  given  separately.  Tims,  we  may  give  the  history 
of  the  external  life  of  a  state,  its  political  institutions,  educa- 
tion, religion,  industry,  commerce,  arts,  each  irrespective  of 


224  PEINCIPAL  FOKMS  OF  PROSE.  Sec.  139 

the  others.  This  method  is  a  favorite  one  in  ecclesiastical 
history,  and  has  sometimes  been  employed  in  secular  his- 
tory. 

Its  disadvantages  are  that  it  destroys  the  unity  of  the  history 
by  giving  a  number  of  parallel  histories ;  it  exhibits  the  different 
institutions  as  independent,  and  does  not  show  how  they  mutu- 
ally influence  each  other,  and  can  not  consequently  make 
known  their  true  significance;  it  involves  frequent  and  tedious 
repetitions. 

The  Pragmatic  Method, — In  the  pragmatic  method  the 
subjects  are  selected  and  combined  with  a  view  to  some  spe- 
cific purpose,  mostly  to  make  it  instructive  for  practical  life. 
The  great  interest  of  history  at  the  present  day  is  the  practical 
one  (sec.  137),  and  in  one  sense  all  history  should  be  prag- 
matic— it  should  exhibit  events  and  institutions  in  their  causal 
connection ;  exhibit  results  and  show  what  produced  them, 
and  afford  lessons  for  the  present.  The  method  has  been 
greatly  abused;  not  only  by  a  wrong  interpretation  of  facts, 
but  also  by  allowing  the  deliberate  purpose  to  impart  theoret- 
ical knowledge  to  corrupt  the  form  of  the  presentation;  an 
abstract,  logical  plan  is  substituted  for  the  narrative,  and 
instead  of  a  history  there  is  produced  a  philosophical  disquisi- 
tion. 

The  Natural  Method. — The  natural  method  combines  what 
is  good  in  the  chronological,  topical,  and  pragmatic  methods. 
It  adheres  to  the  order  of  time  so  far  as  this  is  possible.  It 
discriminates  the  various  elements  of  the  life  of  a  nation, 
traces  the  growth  of  each,  but  instead  of  presenting  them  as 
detached  fragments,  it  exhibits  them  in  their  living  connection 
as  parts  of  one  indivisible  whole.  It  gives  what  is  important 
in  a  period  in  one  complete  picture,  in  which  the  parts  are 
brought  together  according  to  their  real  connection,  and  are 
represented  on  a  scale  corresponding  to  their  comparative  im- 
portance, thus  affording  a  simultaneous  view  of  the  whole. 
"The  reader  has  the  pleasure  of  foreseeing  somewhat  of  the 


Sec.  140  HISTORICAL  PROSE.  225 

sequel  without  confusion;  lie  observes  always  one  event  rising 
out  of  another,  and  longs  to  see  the  winding  up  of  the  whole, 
which  is  artfully  concealed  from  him,  to  hasten  him  on  to  it 
uith  the  greater  impatience.  When  he  has  perused  the  whole 
history,  he  looks  back  like  a  curious  traveler,  who,  having  got 
to  the  top  of  a  mountain,  observes  all  around  him,  and  takes  a 
delight  in  viewing  from  this  situation,  the  way  he  came  and 
all  the  pleasant  places  through  which  he  passed."  Fenelon. 

140.  Distribution  into  Periods. — When  the  history  is  an 
extended  one,  a  proper  division  into  periods  is  an  important 
means  toward  clearness  and  completeness.  The  divisions  of 
history  are  called  periods,  the  boundaries  of  a  period  are  called 
epochs, — literally,  stopping  places.  Epochs  are  points  of  time 
marked  by  an  important  event  which  terminates  one  series  of 
events,  and  gives  a  new  direction  to  the  course  of  history. 
They  thus  serve  as  convenient  points  from  which  to  survey  the 
past,  and  enter  upon  a  new  stage.  The  birth  of  Christ  and 
the  Reformation  are  epochs  of  universal  history.  The  life  of 
every  nation  is  marked  by  special  epochs;  as,  in  English  his- 
tory, the  Xorman  conquest;  the  Revolution  of  1688. 

The  division  adopted  must  be,  in  the  first  place,  rational. 
It  must  be  founded  on  some  principle,  there  must  be  some 
reason  for  it.  •  It  will  not  suffice  to  select  arbitrarily  some  date 
as  the  beginning  or  end  of  a  period.  Each  period  should  have 
a  distinctive  character  arising  from  the  nature  of  the  events 
that  were  unfolded  in  it;  should  be  an  act  in  the  drama,  in 
which  the  plot  is  earned  through  a  definite  stage;  and  should 
have  its  beginning,  middle,  and  end.  The  division  into  cent- 
uries adopted  in  some  ecclesiastical  and  secular  histories  is  an 
example  of  merely  accidental  division;  the  epochs  do  not  coin- 
cide with  the  close  of  the  centuries;  and  the  narrative  is  inter- 
rupted in  the  midst  of  the  development  of  an  event. 

The  division,  in  the  second  place,  must  be  natural.  It  must 
be  drawn  from  the  facts;  and  not  be  imposed  upon  them  by 
arranging  them  in  conformity  to  a  favorite  theory  or  scheme. 

In  the  third  place,  the  divisions  and  subdivisions  should  not 


226  PRINCIPAL  FORMS  OF  PROSE.  Sec.  140 

be  too  greatly  multiplied.  When  earned  too  far,  division  be- 
comes puerile;  instead  of  conducing  to  clearness  and  order,  it 
produces  only  confusion.  The  great  historians  are  remarkable 
for  their  skill  in  presenting  the  most  complex  subjects  with  the 
greatest  simplicity  and  clearness. 

141.  Introduction  and  Conclusion. — The  conclusion  of  a 
history  may  be  a  brief  summary  of  what  was  accomplished  in 
the  progress  of  events;  or  may  direct  attention  to  important 
results  flowing  from  them.     The  introduction  is  of  more  im- 
portance and  of  greater  difficulty.     Its  aim  is  to  prepare  the 
reader  to  understand  the  course  of  events;  in  most  cases  it 
contains  a  summary  account  of  the  state  of  things  previous  to 
the  period  at  which   the  history  begins.     The  faults  to   be 
avoided  are,  on  the  one  hand,  abruptness,  on  the  other,  dis- 
proportion, and  ascending  to  too  remote  a  period. 

Ex. — Macaulay  begins  his  history  thus:  "The  events  which  I  propose 
to  relate  form  only  a  single  act  of  a  great  and  eventful  drama  extending 
throng] i  ages,  and  mnst  be  very  imperfectly  understood  unless  the  plot  of 
the  preceding  acts  be  well  known.  I  shall  therefore  introduce  my  narra- 
tive by  a  slight  sketch  of  the  history  of  our  country  from  the  earliest 
times.  I  shall  pass  very  rapidly  over  many  centuries;  but  I  shall  dwell 
at  some  length  on  the  vicissitudes  of  that  contest  which  the  administra- 
tion of  King  James  the  Second  brought  to  a  decisive  crisis." 

142.  Description. — Description  enters  more  or  less  largely 
into  all  historical  works.     The  events  are  so  closely  connected 
with  localities  and  persons,  that  in  order  to  render  them  even 
intelligible,  the  historian  must  endeavor  to  place  before  the 
minds  of  his  readers  a  vivid  picture  of  the  entire  land,  of  par- 
ticular localities,  and  of  the  character  of  the  leading  actors. 
The  field  of  historical  description  embraces,  besides  the  objects 
just  mentioned,  a  vast  number  of  objects,  such  as, — the  char- 
acter of  an  entire  people  at  a  particular  time  or  of  particular 
classes  of  society,  the  forms  of  government,  modes  of  life, 
industrial  arrangements, — in  a  word,  all  the  forms  and  products 
of  human,  activity. 


Sec.  143  HISTORICAL  PROSE.  227 

Reflections. — The  historian  frequently  mingles  reflections 
with  his  narrative;  these  often  impart  a  peculiar  charm  to  the 
history,  and  further  the  great  ends  to  which  it  is  conducive. 
The  privilege  is  frequently  abused.  It  is  worse  than  useless 
to  state  explicitly  what  would  suggest  itself  to  an  intelligent 
reader  of  the  narrative.  The  main  uses  of  reflections  are  to 
explain  apparent  contradictions;  to  point  out  the  resemblance 
between  a  particular  fact  and  some  other  event  in  history;  to 
exhibit  the  motives  of  an  act,  or  indicate  its  bearings.  In 
every  case  they  should  connect  easily  and  naturally  with  the 
narrative,  and  embrace  what  is  involved  in  it;  they  may  be 
given  directly  or  indirectly ;  they  should  be  brief,  striking,  and 
not  extended  into  dissertations:  often  a  judgment  is  suggested 
by  a  single  epithet. 

143.  Essential  qualities  of  Historical  Style. — In  the  his- 
torical style  are  combined  the  greatest  clearness,  precision, 
vivacity,  and  dignity. 

The  first  quality  required  is  clearness.  The  objects  them- 
selves and  their  relations  to  each  other  should  be  clearly  ex- 
hibited. As  history  aims  to  exhibit  events  in  their  inward 
connection  and  progressive  development,  it  is  indispensable  that 
there  be  a  sustained  movement  in  the  narrative,  no  interrup- 
tions nor  omissions,  but  each  part  should  be  connected  with  what 
precedes  and  what  follows.  A  rigid  exclusion  of  unnecessary 
matter — of  all  events,  circumstances,  reflections  only  remotely 
connected  with  the  subject — is  required.  Excess  of  description 
and  of  comparison  obscures  the  connection.  As  history  is 
written  for  general  readers,  a  regard  to  clearness  requires  the 
avoidance  of  all  local,  provincial,  technical  terms. 

Vivacity  is  closely  connected  with  clearness.  It  requires 
the  rejection  of  abstract  expressions,  which  are  not  suited  to 
narration.  Complex  sentences  and  periods  are  incompatible 
with  it.  The  opposite  extreme  is  equally  to  be  shunned;  it  is 
not  the  aim  of  history  to  move  the  feelings  and  passions,  and 
the  writer  can  not  adopt  the  style  of  the  pamphleteer  or  orator. 
The  figures  of  passion,  such  as  the  interrogation  and  hyperbole, 


228  PRINCIPAL  FORMS  OF  PROSE.  Sec.  143 

do  not  suit  the  style  of  history.  Imaginative  beauty  is  not 
banished  from  this  class  of  compositions,  it  holds  however  but 
a  subordinate  place  5  too  much  embellishment  is  a  disadvan- 
tage. 

Brevity  is  a  means  toward  clearness  and  vivacity;  it  is  not 
to  be  made  an  end.  From  the  nature  of  the  subjects  dealt  with, 
there  is  great  danger  of  verbosity  in  this  class  of  compositions, 
llegard  must  be  had  both  to  the  choice  of  circumstances  and 
the  number  of  words.  Cicero  says,  "There  is  nothing  more 
pleasing  in  history  than  a  simple  perspicuous  brevity." 

Dignity,  or  nobleness,  is  another  essential  quality.  This  is 
the  natural  expression  of  the  state  of  mind  which  the  great 
events  narrated  should  produce.  The  writer  sets  before  the 
reader  important  transactions  which  have  influenced  the  des- 
tiny of  the  race;  teaches  practical  lessons  to  the  present  and 
future;  and  expects  his  work  to  be  permanent.  Whatever 
savors  of  levity  has  no  place  in  such  works:  a  regard  to  dig- 
nity requires  the  exclusion  of  all  low7  words  and  expressions, 
and  of  many  that  may  be  admissible  in  ordinary  conversations 
and  writings  pertaining  to  merely  practical  concerns. 

There  was  long  prevalent  a  false  notion  of  dignity,  which 
had  a  disastrous  influence  upon  the  manner  of  writing  history. 
The  majority  of  historians  filled  their  works  with  narratives  of 
wars,  revolutions,  conspiracies,  and  negotiations,  regarding 
these  as  the  only  objects  of  historic  interest^  to  the  exclusion 
of  all  those  details  which  throw  light  upon  the  character  of 
persons  and  the  state  of  society.  A  history  written  accord- 
ing to  this  code  contains  only  a  record  of  the  movements 
upon  the  surfttce,  but  of  all  that  is  vital  and  important  be- 
neath, it  reveals  nothing.  The  great  historians  of  the  present 
day  reject  this  false  notion,  and  regard  no  fact  as  trivial 
that  helps  us  to  understand  the  life  of  a  people  in  a  given 
period. 

144.  Division  of  History. — History  is  divided  with  respect 
to  the  extent  of  its  subject  into  universal  history,  special  his- 
tory, and  biography. 


Sec.  144  HISTORICAL  PROSE.  L-'O 

Universal  History. — We  may  regard  the  history  of  the 
race  as  one  great  drama  in  which  each  nation  has  its  part  to 
perform,  and  contributes  to  the  final  result.  It  is  the  aim  of 
universal  history  to  set  before  us  in  their  proper  connection  the 
great  events  in  the  progress  of  the  race.  In  so  vast  a  subject, 
there  is  required  a  careful  selection  of  circumstances;  only 
those  are  admitted  which  have  a  universal  interest.  There  is 
great  danger  of  being  influenced  in  the  choice  of  materials  by 
some  preconceived  theory.  It  is  hard  to  avoid  one  of  two 
extremes  in  this  class  of  histories:  the  one,  that  of  making  it  a 
dull,  lifeless  conglomerate  of  facts,  the  other,  that  of  convert- 
ing it  into  a  philosophical  dissertation,  in  which  abstract  no- 
tions and  discussions  take  the  place  of  facts.  The  great 
importance  of  fixing  the  epochs  and  of  a  just  distribution  into 
periods,  as  well  as  of  giving  to  each  event  that  degree  of 
prominence  which  its  importance  requires,  is  self-evident. 

Special  History. — Every  society  can  have  its  history.  The 
most  important  of  this  class  is  the  history  of  a  nation.  It  is 
the  story  of  the  life,  growth,  and  struggles  of  a  nation,  with 
the  exhibition  of  its  characteristics  and  its  relations  to  other 
nations,  either  during  the  entire  period  of  its  existence  or 
during  a  portion  of  it.  The  general  principles  already  laid 
down  apply -particularly  to  this  class.  No  further  discussion 
of  it  is  necessary.  It  is  needless  to  enumerate  the  various 
histories  of  different  societies ;  they  do  not  admit  of  classifica- 
tion. One  of  the  most  important  is  church,  or  ecclesiastical 
history,  i.  e.7  the  narrative  of  the  extension  of  the  church — the 
record  of  the  deeds,  struggles,  and  sufferings  by  which  the 
principles  of  Christianity  have  been  diffused  through  modern 
society. 

Biography. — A  biography  is  the  record  of  the  life  of  a  per- 
son. Biographical  interest  is  of  different  kinds;  it  can  be 
either  in  the  outward  deeds  of  a  person,  as  in  the  lives  of 
warriors  and  statesmen,  in  which  case  it  resembles  historical 
interest,  or  it  can  be  in  the  exhibition  of  the  individual  char- 


-30  PRINCIPAL  FORMS  OF  PROSE.  Sec.  144 

acter.  Many  of  the  most  interesting  and  elevating  l)iograpliiesr 
are  those  of  men  who  have  lived  in  quiet  and  obscurity.  The 
interest  in  this  case  is  psychological. 

The  subject  of  the  biography  is  not  to  be  treated  as  merely 
a  central  figure  around  which  to  group  the  events  of  a  par- 
ticular period.  This  is  permitted  to  the  historian  in  order  to 
give  unity  to  his  narrative,  but  not  to  the  biographer.  The 
aim  of  biography  is  to  present  a  complete  picture  of  the  life 
and  character  of  a  single  person.  The  writer  is  guided  in  the 
selection  of  facts,  not  by  their  importance  in  the  history  of  the 
nation,  but  by  their  relation  to  the  character,  activity,  and  fate 
of  his  subject.  Often  a  slight  circumstance,  or  word,  becomes 
all-important  as  revealing  the  motives  and  principles  of  a  man, 
or  as  exerting  an  influence  on  his  life. 

To  be  a  faithful  record,  a  biography  must  not  be  a  dry  regis- 
ter of  the  birth,  occupation,  and  public  acts;  all  should  be 
exhibited  as  proceeding  from  and  as  affecting  the  personal 
character.  Here  care  is.  required,  so  that  a  connection  be  not 
devised  which  has  no  foundation  in  fact.  The  biography  must 
not  become  a  mere  panegyric.  This  takes  place  when  only  the 
bright  sides  of  the  character  are  exhibited,  and  the  faults, 
weaknesses,  and  errors  are  suppressed  or  extenuated.  Cold- 
ness and  want  of  sympathy  are  equally  fatal  to  success  in 
writing  a  biography:  such  a  writer  can  not  understand  the 
peculiarities  of  the  one  he  would  make  us  acquainted  with; 
he  is  wanting  in  one  of  the  essential  requisites  of  a  faithful 
biographer. 

Special  Histories  of  Institutions,  Industries,  Arts,  etc. — 
A  class  of  histories  of  great  and  continually  increasing  value 
embraces  works  that  trace  the  rise,  growth,  and  changes  of 
particular  institutions,  laws,  manners  and  customs,  and  what- 
ever else  is  connected  with  the  inner  life  of  a  people.  Thus, 
there  are  histories  of  philosophy,  literature,  art,  education,  law, 
commerce,  and  industry.  The  personal  interest  of  history 
proper  is  wanting  in  works  of  this  class;  they  are  chiefly  ex- 
pository and  critical,  partaking  more  of  the  nature  of  scientific 


Sec.  146  ORATORICAL  PROSE.  231 

treatises.  A  great  defect  of  the  whole  class — one  which  can 
not  he  remedied — is,  that  by  treating  of  institutions  arid  vari- 
ous products  of  human  activity,  irrespective  of  the  character 
and  condition  of  the  age  and  the  circumstances  modifying 
them,  they  present  an  image  that  is  necessarily  imperfect. 
The  literature  of  a  nation,  for  example,  can  not  be  appreciated 
without  a  knowledge  of  its  political  and  social  history.  (See 
Pragmatic  Method,  sec.  139.) 


CHAPTER  IY. 

ORATORICAL  PROSE. 

145.  Oratorical  Discourse  denned. — An  oration  is  a  public 
discourse  made  with  a  view  of  determining  the  wills  of  the 
hearers  to  some  definite  action  either  near  or  remote.     It  is 
intended  to  be  heard,  not  read.     It  presupposes  an  audience 
composed  of  persons  varying  in  age,  condition,  and  culture. 
Its  distinctive  characteristic  is,  that  it  has  for  its  end  to  lead 
to  some  determinate  action.     There  may  be  public  discourses 
for  other  purposes, — as  to  instruct  and  to  entertain;  but  they 
do  not  properly  belong  to  oratory,  and  are  governed  by  different 
laws.     The  power  to  influence  the  wills  of  others  by  contin- 
uous discourse  is  eloquence. 

146.  Analysis  of  Persuasion. — In  order  to  persuade  it  is 
necessary  both  to  enlighten  and  convince  the  understanding 
and  to  move  the  passions. 

The  orator  must  give  to  his  hearers  a  clear  view  of  the 
nature  and  aim  of  the  action  proposed,  and  convince  them  of 
its  necessary  connection  with  their  duty,  interest,  or  happiness. 
There  may  occur  cases  in  which  the  existence  of  a  conviction 
may  be  assumed,  and  in  which  the  main  thing  is  to  overcome 
indifference  and  awaken  interest  in  the  subject.  This,  how- 


232  PRINCIPAL  FORMS  OF  PROSE.  Sec,  146 

ever,  happens  but  seldom.  Persuasion  rests  upon  knowledge: 
the  power  of  eloquence  is  in  the  truth  which  it  presents;  by 
this  it  is  distinguished  from  idle  declamation.  The  excitement 
of  the  passions  and  feelings  when  the  understanding  is  not 
convinced  produces  no  permanent  result.  When  action  is  to 
be  taken  on  matters  involving  important  interests,  and  espe- 
cially when  a  course  of  conduct  requiring  labor  and  sacrifice  is 
to  be  pursued,  solid  conviction  is  indispensable.  If  we  see  a 
speaker  employing  appeals  to  the  passions  when  he  should  be 
explaining  and  arguing,  we  may  justly  suspect  that  he  is 
deficient  in  knowledge,  or  has  no  serious  belief  and  interest  in 
what  he  proposes. 

But  important  as  conviction  is,  it  is  not  the  end  of  oratory. 
Eloquence  is  not  content  with  satisfying  the  judgment,  it 
strives  to  produce  a  change  in  the  inward  or  outward  life  of 
others.  Didactic  discourse  is  the  expression  of  cool  thought, 
and  is  intent  on  clearness  and  completeness  of  knowledge; 
oratory  is  the  expression  of  desire  and  will;  it  implies  a  gov- 
erning desire  in  the  mind  of  the  orator  which  he  would  com- 
municate to  those  to  whom  he  speaks.  The  struggle  of  the 
orator  is  to  become  master  of  the  wills  of  others.  His  hearers 
are  supposed  to  be  in  a  state  of  indifference  or  of  hostility,  and 
lie  endeavors  to  remove  obstacles,  bring  them  to  his  side,  and 
induce  them  to  resolve  and  act  with  him.  Conviction  alone 
will  not  accomplish  this — belief  will  not  lead  to  action — wants 
must  be  awakened,  desires  excited.  The  orator  will  foil  of 
attaining  his  object  if,  in  addition  to  informing  the  understand- 
ing, he  does  not  get  control  of  the  passions. 

147.  The  Theme   of   an   Oratorical   Discourse. — 1.  The 

theme  of  an  oratorical  discourse  is  a  practical  truth; the  sub- 
ject is  viewed  in  its  relations  to  life  and  conduct,  and  a  leading 
thought  is  selected  which  can  be  brought  to  bear  directly  on 
the  practical  activities.  It  is  a  great  mistake,  showing  an 
ignorance  of  the  true  nature  of  eloquence,  to  select  theoretical 
propositions  that  address  the  understanding  only,  or  poetical 
themes  that  stimulate  only  the  sensibilities.  Descriptive, 


Sec.  148  ORATORICAL  PROSE.  233 

sentimental,  imaginative,  and  abstract  themes  are  unsuitable 
for  the  purpose  of  an  orator. 

±  The  theme  should  be  one  the  importance  of  which  is 
apparent  upon  its  announcement  or  becomes  so  from  the  orator's 
mode  of  discussing  it.  The  seriousness  and  practical  character 
of  eloquence  excludes  every  thing  trivial.  At  the  same  time 
v\  hat  is  proposed  must  be  conformable  to  the  laws  of  morality. 
It  is  true  that  eloquence  is  often  perverted  to  persuade  to  im- 
moral actions,  but  in  its  highest  and  only  genuine  form,  it  is 
employed  only  in  the  interests  of  truth  and  virtue.  Without 
thorough  earnestness,  founded  on  the  conviction  of  the  moral 
worth  and  importance  of  the  object  sought,  there  is  no  genuine 
oratorical  inspiration. 

3.  As  an  oratorical  discourse  is  spoken  and  is  intended  to 
determine  the  will  to  a  definite  action  or  course  of  conduct,  its 
unity  is  of  the  most  perfect  kind.     To  test  the  unity  of  a  speech, 
we  inquire  whether  it  can  be  reduced  to  a  single  proposition, 
and  whether  all  the  parts  tend  to  a  single  result. 

4.  Subjects  that  are  difficult  to  comprehend  are  not  suitable. 
When  the  intellect  is  tasked  to  understand  a  discussion,  the 
impression  on  the  will  is  faint.     Prolonged  investigation  and 
elaborate  reasoning  do  not  belong  to  eloquence.     As  it  is  con- 
cerned with  practical  interests,  and  implies  a  mixed  audience, 
it  is  the  most  popular  form  of  literature. 

148.  In  developing  the  theme  all  the  elementary  forms  of 
discourse  can  be  employed;  but  they  obtain  a  peculiar  charac- 
ter from  the  nature  and  end  of  eloquence. 

Description. — Description  is  least  fitted  for  the  purposes  of 
oratory.  Very  rarely  can  a  speech  take  the  form  of  a  descrip- 
tion; and  as  a  subordinate  part  it  must  be  employed  with 
moderation.  Delineations  of  character  and  of  manners  and 
customs  are  the  forms  most  frequently  introduced. 

Narration. — Narration  is  more  important.  It  is  an  essen- 
tial part  of  forensic,  and  often  enters  largely  into  the  other 

Rhet.  20 


234  PRINCIPAL  FORMS  OF  PEOSE.  Sec.  118 

kinds  of  eloquence.  An  entire  oration  may  sometimes  take 
the  form  of  a  narrative.  Narration  is  used  as  an  argument, 
or  as  a  statement  preliminary  to  an  argument,  or  in  order  to 
influence  the  feelings.  It  assumes  different  forms,  being  some- 
times a  simple,  precise  statement,  at  other  times,  a  more  ex- 
tended one,  the  orator  mingling  his  judgments  with  narrative, 
and  amplifying  it  with  a  view  to  exciting  a  favorable  disposi- 
tion or  the  opposite. 

Oratorical  narration  differs  from  historical ;  the  aim  of  the 
latter  is  to  give  a  clear  and  complete  exhibition  of  facts;  the 
aim  of  the  former  is  to  accomplish  a  purpose.  Hence  without 
distorting  or  mutilating  the  facts,  it  omits  what  has  no  refer- 
ence to  the  object  to  be  gained  and  sets  forth  all  that  bears 
upon  it;  circumstances  which,  apart  from  the  purpose  of  the 
discourse  are  insignificant,  are  made  prominent,  if  they  give 
plausibility  to  the  orator's  views  or  favor  the  impression  he 
wishes  to  create.  Into  a  well  constructed  narrative  may  be 
woven  views  and  hints,  which  by  anticipating  and  removing 
objections  and  conciliating  the  hearers  prepare  the  way  for  the 
arguments  and  motives  that  are  to  be  afterward  brought  for- 
ward. 

Exposition. — Oratorical  exposition  differs  from  scientific: 
it  employs  the  same  instruments  but  applies  them  differently. 
Definitions  are  needed  as  preliminaries  to  proof  and  exhorta- 
tion, and  should  move  the  passions  as  well  as  enlighten  the 
understanding.  "Definition  should  as  much  as  possible  excite 
and  stimulate  the  free  and  vital  forces  of  the  soul.  Perfect 
definition  is  that  which  at  the  same  time  gives  knowledge, 
comprehension,  feeling,  faith."  Vinet. 

Direct  definitions  are  not  used  by  an  orator  when  others 
adapted  to  his  purpose  can  be  found;  when  used  they  should 
be  brief;  if  the  attention  is  long  detained  upon  them,  a  pause 
is  made  in  the  progress  of  the  discourse  destructive  to  the 
impression  to  be  produced. 

An  oratorical  definition  is  not  subject  to  the  rigid  laws  of 
logic;  repetitions,  figures,  accidental  circumstances,  whatever 


Sec.  148  ORATORICAL  PROSE.  235 

can  present  the  idea  to  the  imagination  and  through  it  influence 
the  emotions  and  affections^  are  made  use  of  without  hesita- 
tion. 

Argumentation. — Arguments  are  needed  to  convince  the 
hearers  that  the  act  to  which  they  are  urged  has  a  necessary 
connection  with  their  duty,  interest,  or  happiness.  As  the 
orator  appeals  to  practical  interests,  his  mode  of  reasoning 
differs  from  that  of  the  philosopher.  He  employs  a  method 
suited  to  the  views,  character,  and  condition  of  his  audience, 
and  selects  such  facts  and  principles  as  they  understand  and 
acknowledge  to  be  true.  He  weighs  his  arguments  and  does 
not  merely  count  them,  rejecting  the  weak,  but  riot  adducing 
all  that  can  be  urged  even  with  force  in  support  of  his  thesis. 
Too  many  arguments  produce  confusion  and  obscurity;  a  dis- 
course often  gains  in  strength  by  omitting  some  that  in  them- 
selves are  strong. 

The  characteristic  of  oratorical  argumentation  is  that  it  is 
subservient  to  persuasion.  The  orator  seeks  to  convince  his 
hearers,  but  only  that  he  may  thereby  gain  their  affections  and 
induce  them  to  adopt  a  certain  measure  or  pursue  a  certain 
course  of  action.  He  accordingly  endeavors  to  combine  in  his 
argument  both  what  is  convincing  to  the  understanding  and 
adapted  to  moye  the  passions.  This  combination  of  argument 
and  pathos  constitutes  the  distinctive  feature  of  eloquence. 
"  It  is  this  which  bears  down  every  obstacle  and  procures  the 
speaker  an  irresistible  power  over  the  thoughts  and  purposes 
of  his  audience.  What  opposition  is  he  not  prepared  to  con- 
quer on  whose  arms  reason  hath  conferred  solidity  and  weight, 
and  passion  such  a  sharpness  as  enables  them,  in  defiance  of 
every  obstruction,  to  open  a  speedy  passage  to  the  heart." 
Campbell,  Phil,  of  Rhetoric. 

The  arguments  suited  to  this  animated  reasoning  are  princi- 
pally those  from  experience  and  analogy:  the  a  fortiori  argu- 
ment is  a  favorite  one  in  oratory.  An  elaborate  artificial 
method  of  reasoning,  in  which  the  arguments  are  linked  to- 
gether in  an  unbroken  chain  is  not  proper  in  a  speech ;  it  tasks 


23G  PRINCIPAL  FORMS  OF  PROSE.  Sec.  148 

the  attention  to  follow  the  train  and  leaves  no  room  for  the 
play  of  feeling:  however  solid  the  arguments,  they  produce  no 
practical  effects. 

A  great  deal  depends  on  the  manner  in  which  the  various 
arguments  are  grouped  and  arranged;  those  which  when  pre- 
sented singly  make  a  feeble  impression,  will  often  when  prop- 
erly combined  be  irresistible. 

To  give  efficacy  to  his  reasoning  the  orator  is  obliged  to 
exhibit  the  same  argument  in  different  shapes,  or  to  amplify  it, 
by  unfolding  the  particular  ideas  involved  in  it,  or  by  compar- 
ing the  object  with  similar  objects. 

149.  Exhortation. — Conviction  alone  does  not  lead  to  ac- 
tion :  the  passions  are  the  connecting  link  between  knowledge 
and  volition.  However  firm  our  conviction  may  be,  it  will 
not  influence  our  conduct  unless  some  desire  is  excited.  The 
orator  must  address  the  active  principles  of  our  nature;  if  he 
does  not,  he  may  leave  his  hearers  convinced  but  indifferent. 

The  term  passions,  as  here  employed,  denotes  all  the  tenden- 
cies to  overt  action, — what  are  sometimes  called  the  active 
principles,  conative  powers.  It  includes  (1)  the  desires, — or 
the  appropriative  principles, — the  aim  of  which  is  the  perfection 
of  the  individual ;  as,  the  desire  of  fame,  of  power,  of  society, 
etc.;  (2)  the  affections, — or  the  disinterested,  communicative 
principles, — the  purpose  of  which  is  to  preserve  and  perfect  the 
social  state;  e.  g.  the  natural  affections  (love  of  kindred,  and 
home),  patriotism,  benevolence,  indignation;  (3)  self-love;  (4) 
the  sense  of  duty,  reverence  for  the  moral  law,  and  the  re- 
ligious principles. 

As  subservient  to  moving  the  passions  the  emotions  are  also 
appealed  to.  These  are  purely  passive  conditions,  not  impel- 
ling to  action,  but  aiding  in  exciting  and  directing  the  active 
powers. 

On  what  does  the  power  of  moving  the  passions  depend? 
— Rhetorical  study  can  afford  but  little  assistance  to  the  orator 
in  this  part  of  his  task:  his  success  depends  mainly  upon  his 


Sec,  149  ORATORICAL  PROSE.  L'.'JT 

personal  character.  Whatever  be  the  extent  of  his  knowledge 
and  whatever  liis  intellectual  power,  if  he  does  not  add  to  them- 
strength  of  will,  moral  earnestness,  sympathy  with  his  subject 
and  hearers,  acquaintance  with  the  springs  of  human  action, 
capacity  to  enter  into  the  states  of  mind  of  others,  he  will  not 
be  able  to  master  the  wills  of  his  audience.  Above  all  things, 
he  must  himself  feel  strongly  the  passions  he  would  communi- 
cate :  he  can  not  communicate  to  others  what  he  does  not 
possess.  There  is  a  language  natural  to  passion  which  can  not 
be  imitated  5  when  it  is  attempted  to  express  a  feigned  passion 
in  the  language  of  a  natural  one,  the  speech  becomes  artificial, 
cold,  and  repulsive.  The  most  ignorant  member  of  the  audi- 
ence, although  he  does  not  detect  the  cause,  will  still  feel  that 
the  discourse  is  ineffective.  To  awaken  the  proper  feelings, 
prolonged  meditation  is  often  necessary.  The  mind  of  the 
orator  must  brood  upon  the  subject  until  its  full  significance 
and  importance  is  vividly  realized,  and  his  powers  are  centered 
upon  it. 

At  the  same  time  the  excitement  of  passion  should  never  go 
so  far  as  to  appear  violent  or  destroy  self-control.  Violent  dis- 
plays of  feeling  will  not  inflame  the  feelings  of  others.  We 
expect  of  one  who  is  entitled  to  our  sympathy,  a  reserve  and 
self-control,  which  suggest  an  intensity  of  feeling  greater  than 
he  expresses.  „ 

"  Xot  merely  the  strongest  thinkers,  and  ablest  and  most  con- 
vincing reasoners,  but  many  of  the  most  impressive  and  persua- 
sive rhetoricians  of  modern  times,  have  been  remarkable  rather 
for  moderation  than  exaggeration  in  expression.  It  was  a  maxim 
of  Webster's,  that  violence  of  language  was  indicative  of  feeble- 
ness of  thought  and  want  of  reasoning  power,  and  it  was  his 
practice  rather  to  understate  than  overstate  the  strength  of  his 
confidence  in  the  soundness  of  his  own  arguments  and  the 
logical  necessity  of  his  conclusions.  He  kept  his  auditor  con- 
stantly in  advance  of  him,  by  suggestion  rather  than  by  strong 
asseveration,  by  a  calm  exposition  of  considerations  which 
ought  to  excite  feeling  in  the  heart  of  both  speaker  and  hearer, 
not  by  an  undignified  and  theatrical  exhibition  of  passion  in 


238  PRINCIPAL  FORMS  OF  PROSE.  Sec.  149 

himself.     And  this  is  indeed  the  sound  practical  interpretation 
of  the  Iloratian  precept : 

*  Si  vis  me  flere,  dolendum  est 
Prinium  ipsi  tibi.' 

Wouldst  thou  unseal  the  fountain  of  my  tears 
Thyself  the  signs  of  grief  must  show. 

To  the  emotion  of  the  hearer,  the  poet  applies  a  stronger 
word,  flere,  to  weep,  than  to  that  of  the  speaker  or  actor,  who 
best  accomplishes  the  aims  of  his  art  by  a  more  mitigated  dis- 
play of  the  passions  he  would  excite  in  the  breast  of  his  audi- 
ence." Marsh,  Lectures  on  the  English  Language,  pp.  235, 
230. 

150.  Rules  for  Exhortation. — 1.  The  excitement  of  the 
passions  is  a  means  not  an  end:  it  is  not  sufficient  to  arouse 
them,  they  must  be  directed  to  the  attainment  of  a  definite 
object.  The  oratorical  appeal  to  the  passions  must  not  be  con- 
founded with  merely  sentimental  appeals,  which  move  the  feel- 
ings but  do  not  lead  to  adopting  a  resolution  or  making  a  def- 
inite choice. 

2.  Exhortation  is  not  to  be  made  a  substitute  for  thought. 
When  passion  becomes  so  violent  as  to  interfere  with  the  exer- 
cise of  the  judgment,  a  man's  freedom  is  lost;  he  is  governed 
by  physical  force  not  by  rational  motives.     Eloquence,  which 
regards  men  as  free  and  rational,  rejects  all  such  means  as  im- 
moral, and  as  unfitted  to  its  great  aim  of  producing  permanent 
results.     Whatever  is  permanent  in  human  conduct  must  rest 
upon  conviction. 

3.  In  every  appeal  to  the  passions  regard  must  be  paid  to 
the  claims  of  truth  and  morality.     Eloquence  can  employ  only 
the  natural,  primitive  principles  of  our  nature ;  what  is  per- 
verted, base,  selfish,  brutal,  malignant — whatever  violates  the 
moral  dignity  of  human  nature,  it  rejects. 

4.  It  is  important  to  learn  the  condition  of  the  audience, 
whether  they  are  in  doubt  about  the  propriety  of  the  means  or 


Sec.  151  ORATORICAL  PROSE.  239 

indifferent  to  the  end.  In  the  first  case,  the  main  tiling  is  to 
enlighten  and  convince;  in  the  second,  to  exhort.  It  is  a  fatal 
mistake  for  a  speaker,  to  reason  when  he  ought  to  arouse,  or 
to  exhort  when  he  should  explain  and  prove.  The  nature  of 
the  subject  is  also  to  be  taken  into  account  ;  the  degree  of  pas- 
sion should  be  suited  to  its  importance;  to  endeavor  to  awaken 
strong  feeling  upon  insignificant  objects  is  absurd,  and  creates 
only  aversion  and  disgust. 

5.  Indirect  appeals  are  preferable  to  direct.  There  is  a 
natural  jealousy  of  direct  appeals  to  the  feelings,  which  arms 
us  against  them.  They  are  seldom  successful  and  are  gener- 
ally offensive.  It  is  better  to  present  motives  adapted  to  pro- 
duce the  desired  effect,  without  the  appearance  of  an  intention 
to  influence  the  feelings.  When  direct  appeals  are  used,  the 
minds  of  the  auditors  should  be  prepared  for  them  by  what  has 
gone  before,  or  by  circumstances.  Ko  one  should  venture 
upon  them  unless  sure  of  the  sympathy  of  his  audience.  They 
must  also  be  brief:  when  too  prolonged  they  become  wearisome, 
and  the  hearers  relapse  into  indifference  and  soon  pass  from 
that  to  aversion.  ^ 

Allaying  hostile  feelings. — It  is  often  an  important  part 
of  an  orator's  task  to  allay  hostile  passions  that  have  been 
awakened  against  him  by  circumstances  or  by  an  opponent. 
This  art  can  not  be  taught  by  rules;  it  requires  a  knowledge 
of  the  counteractives  of  the  various  passions  and  tact  in  apply- 
ing them.  The  object  is  effected  sometimes  directly  by  raising 
the  opposite  feeling;  more  frequently,  indirectly,  by  making  a 
diversion,  as  by  calm  reasoning  on  some  aspect  of  the  subject, 
presenting  general  views  that  lead  to  reflection,  or  by  pleas- 
antry. 

151.  Oratorical  Disposition. — The  importance  of  a  strongly 
conceived  plan  is  apparent  from  the  nature  of  an  oratorical 
discourse.  It  is  spoken,  and  therefore  requires  the  greatest 
care  to  give  a  clear  and  impressive  view  of  the  entire  subject, 
and  to  impress  it  on  the  memory;  its  effect  must  be  produced 


240  PKINCIPAL  FORMS  OF  PEOSE.  Sec.  151 

in  a  short  period  of  time,  and  consequently  there  is  a  need  of 
such  a  disposition  of  the  materials  as  will  give  to  the  truth 
its  greatest  possible  efficacy.  All  that  was  said  (sec.  23)  of 
the  importance  of  arrangement  is  specially  applicable  to  elo- 
quence. 

Oratorical  disposition  presupposes,  and  is  built  upon  logical, 
but  is  not  identical  with  it.  The  orator  addresses  the  under- 
standing, imagination,  emotions,  and  passions,  and  has  refer- 
ence to  all  of  these  powers  in  arranging  his  thoughts,  and 
keeps  steadily  in  view  the  practical  decision  to  which  he  would 
persuade  his  audience.  The  order  he  adopts  will  be  psycholog- 
ical instead  of  logical;  conforming  not  only  to  the  laws  of 
thought,  but  also  to  the  laAvs  of  feeling  and  desire.  An  oration 
may  be  regarded  as  an  action  in  which  there  is  an  uninter- 
rupted progress  toward  a  definite  end.  The  hearers  are  at 
first  in  a  state  of  indifference  or  hostility,  from  which,  by  pre- 
senting motives,  they  are  to  be  removed,  and  led  gradually  to 
a  determination  in  favor  of  the  measure  proposed.  The  entire 
structure  of  the  discourse  must  have  reference  to  this  end: 
whatever  is  introduced  must  not  only  be  logically  connected 
with  what  precedes,  but  must  be  of  a  nature  to  confirm  and 
strengthen  the  impression  made  upon  the  feelings  and  passions. 
This  uninterrupted,  progressive  movement  is  the  distinctive 
characteristic  of  oratorical  arrangement. 

Parts  of  an  Oratorical  Discourse, — The  organic  parts  of 
an  oratorical  discourse  are  the  following : 

1.  Exordium. 

2.  Body  of  the  speech,  embracing, 

(a)  The  announcement  of  the  theme. 

(b)  The  division  of  the  discourse. 

(c)  The  development  of  the  theme,  comprising  the  argu- 

ments and  motives. 

3.  Peroration. 

152.  The  Exordium. — The  general  nature  of  the  introduc- 
tion as  a  part  of  a  literary  composition  has  been  already  de- 


Sec,  152  ORATORICAL  PROSE.  241 

scribed  (sec.  120).  The  aim  of  eloquence  requires  that  the 
practical  side  of  the  subject  be  made  prominent.  An  exordium 
is  necessary  to  prepare  the  hearers  to  understand  the  thoughts 
that  are  to  be  brought  forward,  to  render  them  disposed  to 
listen  to  them,  to  awaken  as  vivid  expectation  as  possible,  and 
to  excite,  so  far  as  is  necessary  for  the  accomplishment  of  his 
main  purpose,  an  interest  in  the  speaker. 

It  sometimes  happens  that  the  speaker  can  dispense  with  a 
formal  exordium,  and  enter  at  once  upon  the  body  of  the  dis- 
course. AVhen  this  is  the  case,  his  auditors  have  been  pre- 
pared by  what  has  gone  before  or  by  attendant  circumstances. 
If  they  are  not  thus  prepared,  abruptness  produces  an  unfavor- 
able impression. 

The  circumstances  in  which  a  discourse  may  be  delivered 
are  so  various  that  it  must  be  left  to  the  tact  of  the  orator  to 
decide  what  purpose  shall  predominate,  and  to  select  from  the 
possible  exordiums  one  suited  to  the  mood  of  the  audience  and 
their  relation  to  the  subject  and  speaker. 

Sources  of  the  Exordium, — Some  of  the  chief  sources  of 
exordiums  are: 

1.  A  general  notion  or  truth  in  which  the  theme  is  con- 
tained, or  with  which  it  is  closely  connected;  or  a  narrative  of 
facts  to  which,  reference  will  be  made  in  the  course  of  the 
speech.     This  is  the  simplest  and  most  frequent  kind. 

2.  The  opposite  position  of  that  which  is  to  be  advocated. 
The  theme  is  thus  brought  out  more  distinctly. 

3.  A  fact  or  circumstance  embodying  the  theme  in  a  con- 
crete, individual  form.     It  may  be  an  historical  narrative,  a 
fable,  a  parable,  a  hypothetical  case,  etc. 

4.  The  practical  importance  of  the  subject, — its  connection 
with  the  duty,  interest,  honor,  and  happiness  of  the  auditors, 
and  its  advantages  over  what  is  proposed  by  an   opponent. 
This  is  necessary  when  prejudices  prevail  against  the  subject . 
as  useless  and  as  of  merely  speculative  interest. 

f>.  Xovelty  of  the  subject  or  of  the  mode  of  presenting  it; 
it  may  be  shown  that  it  has  been  neglected  and  misunderstood; 

Rhet.  21 


242  PRINCIPAL  FORMS  OF  PROSE.  Sec.  152 

tlie  difficulties  of  discussing  it  properly  may  be  set  forth.  It 
is  sometimes  advantageous  to  present  it  as  a  paradox,  i.  e., 
show  that  it  is  in  real  or  apparent  conflict  with  popular  belief. 

6.  Circumstances  of  time  and  place  in  which  the  speech  is 
made,  the  purpose  for  which  the  assembly  has  been  gathered. 
A  pertinent  reference  to  such  circumstances  serves  especially 
to  excite  curiosity.     An  exordium  drawn  from  something  that 
has  been  said  by  a  previous  speaker,  has  the  appearance  of 
spontaneousness  which  both  conciliates  and  awakens  expecta- 
tion. 

7.  Personal  relations  of  the  speaker.     It  sometimes  happens 
that  a  prejudice  exists  against  the  speaker,  which  he  must  re- 
move, and  conciliate  their  good  will  by  showing  that  he  is  a 
worthy  organ  of  the  cause  which  he  represents,  or  that  he  is 
acting  for  their  interests.     Such  personal  exordiums  are  seldom 
necessary ;  and  should  never  be  employed  when  it  is  possible 
to  dispense  with  them. 

153.  dualities  of  an  Exordium. — In  all  kinds  of  composi- 
tion the  preparation  of  the  introduction  is  a  matter  of  great 
difficulty,  it  is  peculiarly  so  in  oratory.  The  first  impressions 
made  by  the  speaker  are  often  decisive ;  the  audience  is  in  a 
critical  mood,  and  notices  faults  that  would  be  overlooked  when 
it  is  interested  in  the  subject  5  the  speaker  can  not  be  sure 
of  the  state  of  feeling  of  the  audience  toward  himself,  he  may 
be  certain,  however,  that  it  can  be  very  easily  offended. 
The  greatest  caution  and  delicacy  are  required,  both  to  avoid 
gross  faults  as  well  as  every  thing  that  can  be  misinterpreted  or 
awaken  suspicion  against  him. 

The  exordium  should  be  a  real  introduction  to  the  discourse. 
It  should  be  a  single  thought  intimately  related  to  the  subject : 
not  far-fetched,  i.  e.,  having  no  connection,  or  but  a  forced  one, 
with  the  theme  ;  not  one  that  is  equally  suited  to  other  themes ; 
not  one  that,  although  having  a  real  connection  with  the 
theme,  is  so  remote  from  it  as  to  require  a  long  train  of 
thoughts  to  conduct  to  it;  nor  one  that  belongs  to  the  body  of 
the  discourse.  (See  sec.  27.) 


Sec.  154  ORATORICAL  I'JIOSE.  213 

The  hearers  must  be  supposed  to  be  indifferent,  arid  not 
prepared  for  a  severe  mental  effort  or  for  strong  emotions. 
Their  attention  must  be  gradually  fastened  on  the  subject  and 
their  feelings  be  gradually  enlisted.  Elaborate  reasoning, 
subtle  distinctions,  and  all  that  calls  for  an  effort  of  thought 
are  not  suited  to  an  exordium;  which  should  contain  truths 
that  are  known,  easily  apprehended,  and  recognized  as  true 
without  the  aid  of  argument.  The  display  of  strong  feeling 
and  passion  is  also  out  of  place.  The  hearers  can  not  sympa- 
thize with  it,  and  will  be  astonished  and  repelled.  In  this  part 
of  the  discourse  the  aim  should  be  to  conciliate  riot  to  move. 
Exceptions  to  this  rule  are  occasionally  met  with:  the  orator 
begins  with  vehemence,  pomp,  and  magnificence.  But  in 
such  cases,  circumstances  have  prepared  the  hearers,  and  justify 
the  boldness  of  the  orator. 

At  the  same  time  hackneyed,  common-place  thoughts  are  to 
be  excluded  as  fatal  to  the  aim  of  the  orator,  who  seeks  to  im- 
press upon  his  hearers  the  weight  and  importance  of  the  sub- 
ject to  which  he  asks  their  attention. 

The  exordium  should  be  in  due  proportion  to  the  remainder 
of  the  discourse, — neither  too  long,  so  as  to  allow  expectation 
to  be  chilled,  nor  too  short,  by  omitting  what  is  necessary  to 
introduce  the  theme  in  a  suitable  manner. 

The  style  should  be  faultless;  the  want  of  clearness,  correct- 
ness, precision,  is  nowhere  so  noticeable  as  in  the  introduction. 
Ornament  is  seldom  appropriate. 

154.  Body  of  the  Speech. — Introduced  by  the  exordium, 
the  oratorical  action  begins  with  the  announcement  of  the 
theme,  and  proceeds  without  interruption  to  the  designated 
end.  The  passage  from  the  exordium  to  the  body  of  the  dis- 
course is  effected  by  a  transition  (sec.  33).  It  is  not  always 
easy  to  find  a  thought  that  connects  naturally  the  main  idea 
of  the  exordium  with  that  of  the  discourse;  probably  no  part 
of  a  speech  occasions  greater  difficulty,  and  is  more  imperfectly 
accomplished. 


PRINCIPAL  FORMS  OF  PROSE.  Sec.  154 

Announcement  of  the  Theme, — It  lias  been  already  in- 
sisted upon  that  the  writer  or  speaker  must  lay  down  distinctly 
in  his  mind  the  proposition  he  intends  to  develop.  (Sec.  79.) 
But  it  is  not  always  necessary  for  him  to  state  it  explicitly 
to  his  audience  immediately  after  the  exordium.  Sometimes, 
the  hearer  can  discover  it  without  a  formal  announcement ;  at 
other  times,  prudence  may  require  the  suppression  or  at  least 
the  postponement  of  its  enunciation.  But  the  general  rule  is 
to  announce  the  theme  after  the  introduction,  unless  important 
considerations  make  it  advisable  not  to  do  so.  The  expectation 
of  the  audience  has  been  excited,  and  they  naturally  wait  for 
the  statement  of  the  subject.  The  explicit  announcement 
stimulates  and  fixes  the  attention  of  the  hearers,  and  prepares 
them  to  follow  the  train  of  thought,  and  to  appreciate  the  force 
of  the  arguments  and  motives  as  they  are  presented.  A  clear 
and  strong  impression  can  not  be  made  by  a  discourse,  when 
there  is  doubt  and  perplexity  with  reference  to  the  speaker's 
aim.  It  must  be  remembered  that  a  hearer  can  not,  like  a 
reader,  gather  the  drift  of  a  discourse  by  leisurely  examination 
and  repeated  perusals;  if  he  does  not  obtain  it  at  once,  he 
loses  it  entirely. 

The  announcement  of  the  theme  should  be  precise, — con- 
taining the  whole  theme,  and  nothing  more ;  it  should  leave 
no  uncertainty  as  to  the  object  to  which  the  attention  is  to  be 
directed;  it  should  be  expressed  in  the  fewest  possible  and 
most  select  words;  and  at  the  same  time  in  an  attractive, 
striking  manner:  so  that  it  shall  be  immediately  intelligible, 
easily  retained  in  the  memory,  and  shall  stimulate  curiosity. 
All  appearance  of  affectation  and  display,  and  whatever  may 
excite  expectations  which  the  discourse  can  not  satisfy  are  to 
be  shunned. 

Announcement  of  the  Plan. — It  is  left  to  the  judgment  of 
the  orator  to  decide  whether  or  not  he  will  announce  the  plan 
of  the  speech.  Sometimes  his  success  depends  on  his  conceal- 
ing his  course  of  thought  and  his  ultimate  object;  sometimes 
the  announcement  would  mar  the  symmetry  or  interrupt  the 


Sec,  155  ORATORICAL  PROSE.  245 

movement  of  the  discourse;  in  such  cases  it  should  be  omitted. 
I>ut  in  general,  a  brief  and  clear  statement  of  the  main  heads 
of  a  speech  may  often  follow  with  advantage  the  announce- 
ment of  the  theme.  It  is  often  the  necessary  supplement  to 
the  announcement  of  the  subject,  giving  to  it  its  proper  degree 
of  clearness  and  definiteness.  It  gratifies  us  by  presenting 
the  subject  as  a  whole  with  its  main  parts;  such  a  view 
a, wakens  our  interest  and  has  often  the  force  of  a  strong  argu- 
ment. In  discourses  in  which  a  didactic  aim  preponderates, 
the  announcement  of  the  main  divisions  is  of  great  importance; 
in  those  which  address  principally  the  feelings  and  passions,  it 
can  generally  be  omitted.  It  is  never  expedient  to  descend  to 
an  enumeration  of  the  subdivisions:  the  announcement  should 
be  confined  to  the  principal  divisions;  this  affords  a  general 
view  of  the  subject,  and  is  easily  remembered. 

155.  Special  rules  for  arranging  the  arguments  and 
motives. — After  announcing  the  theme  and  the  plan,  we  enter 
upon  its  development,  which  constitutes,  properly  speaking, 
the  body  of  the  discourse.  It  embraces  the  various  facts, 
arguments,  and  motives  which  the  orator  has  selected,  and 
which  he  has  to  arrange  suitably  to  his  purpose.  He  can  not 
accomplish  this  work  successfully  unless  he  penetrates  into  the 
nature  of  the  thoughts  to  be  embodied,  recognizes  their  relation 
to  the  intellectual  and  moral  condition  of  the  audience,  and 
keeps  constantly  in  view  the  effect  to  be  produced. 

The  supreme  law  of  oratorical  disposition,  which  applies 
both  to  the  main  divisions  and  to  the  subordinate  parts,  is  that 
there  must  be  an  uninterrupted  progress  in  developing  the 
theme;  every  step  must  be  an  advance  to  the  end  in  view. 
This  law  compels  us  to  exclude  not  only  what  is  not  connected 
with  the  theme,  but  also  all  which,  though  a  part  of  it,  is  not 
necessary  to  attaining  the  end  of  the  discourse.  The  orator 
does  not  attempt  to  say  all  that  might  be  said  upon  a  subject; 
he  can  not  succeed,  if  he  does  not  practice  self-denial  and 
reject  every  thought  however  important  in  itself,  that  is  not 
indispensable  to  accomplishing  the  object  he  has  in  view.  The 


24f>  PEINCIPAL  FOKMS  OF  PROSE.  Sec.  155 

materials  chosen  must  be  considered  not  merely  with  reference 
to  the  theme  and  practical  aim  of  the  speaker,  but  also  with 
reference  to  the  other  facts  and  principles  making  up  the  devel- 
opment of  the  subject,  and  must  be  disposed  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  throw  light  upon  and  support  each  other,  and  to  contin- 
ually deepen  the  entire  impression  made  on  the  minds  and 
hearts  of  the  hearers.  The  special  rules  of  disposition  are  but 
applications  of  this  general  rule. 

1.  Explanations  and  arguments  addressed  to  the  understand- 
ing must  precede  appeals  to  the  will. 

This  rule  does  not  imply  that  one  part  of  a  discourse  should 
be  devoted  exclusively  to  theoretical  discussions  and  another 
exclusively  to  exhortation.  This  method — upon  which  speeches 
are  too  often  framed — is  a  false  one.  The  practical  aim  of  the 
discourse  should  never  be  lost  sight  of;  every  explanation, 
narrative,  and  argument  should  be  applied  to  move  the  feel- 
ings as  well  as  to  enlighten  and  convince  the  understanding. 
In  eloquence,  conviction  and  persuasion  are  inseparable:  it 
convinces  in  order  to  persuade,  and  persuades  only  after  con- 
vincing. What  is  meant  by  the  rule  is,  that  as  the  decision 
of  the  will  to  which  the  hearers  are  to  be  led  is  the  result, 
not  of  blind  impulse,  but  of  knowledge  and  rational  convic- 
tion, it  is  necessary  first  to  inform  them  of  the  nature  of  an 
action,  and  convince  them  of  its  necessary  connection  with 
their  duty,  interest,  happiness,  before  urging  them  to  perform 
it.  Naturally  exhortation  becomes  more  prominent  towards 
the  close  of  the  discourse,  but  it  may  find  a  place,  in  any  part 
of  it, 

2.  The  disposition  of  the  parts  addressed  to  the  understand- 
ing must  conform  to  the  laws  of  logical  method. 

Logical  method,  which  is  founded  upon  the  laws  of  thought, 
is  not  identical  with  oratorical,  which  takes  into  consideration 
the  imagination  and  the  active  powers;  but  they  are  so  con- 
nected that  the  latter  is  impossible  if  the  laws  of  the  former 
are  violated.  If,  for  example,  the  division  is  faulty  by  con- 
taining either  more  or  less  than  the  theme,  the  hearers  are 
perplexed  by  the  obtrusion  of  points  that  have  no  perceivable 


Sec.  155  ORATORICAL  PROSE.  247 

connection  with  the  discussion,  or  are  embarrassed  by  the 
omission  of  what  is  essential  to  a  complete  view  of  the  sub- 
ject; in  both  cases  it  is  evident  that  the  progress  of  the 
discourse  is  interrupted.  So  also,  if  the  disposition  is  so  de- 
fective that  identical  notions  are  presented  as  distinct,  which 
occurs  when  a  notion  contained  in  the  sphere  of  another  is 
made  coordinate  with  it,  or  when  the  dividing  members  do 
not  exclude  each  other,  or  one  of  the  members  is  the  same  as 
the  theme,  the  speaker  is  doomed  to  idle  and  wearisome  repe- 
titions that  are  fatal  to  uninterrupted  progress. 

3.  The  disposition  should  be  derived  naturally  from  the 
theme,  and  should  contain  the  fewest  possible  divisions  and 
subdivisions.  It  is  characteristic  of  all  great  orators  to  em- 
ploy the  most  simple  and  natural  arrangement.  They  compare 
their  materials,  group  them  into  masses  around  central  ideas, 
or  bring  them  under  more  general  notions,  and  never  admit 
more  separate  heads  than  are  indispensable  to  the  effective 
presentation  of  the  subject.  And  the  arrangement  which  they 
adopt  is  not  one  imposed  upon  the  subject,  but  according  with 
its  nature  and  the  object  to  be  attained.  At  the  same  time 
they  avoid  what  has  appearance  of  triteness.  Kovelty  is  an 
important  means  of  exciting  interest,  and  when  joined  to 
naturalness,  simplicity,  and  completeness,  in  the  disposition  of 
a  subject  arouses  curiosity  and  keeps  the  attention,  whereas  its 
absence  produces  indifference. 

The  want  of  simplicity  often  leads  to  the  violation  of  logical 
laws;  but  even  when  not  chargeable  with  this  fault,  it  is 
injurious  to  oratorical  effect  in  many  ways.  It  necessitates 
subtle  and  unimportant  distinctions.  The  minutest  differences 
are  important  in  science,  but  eloquence  rejects  all  that  have 
not  a  practical  interest  for  the  affections  and  will.  The  exces- 
sive multiplication  of  divisions  is  a  burden  to  the  memory, 
especially  in  a  discourse  intended  to  be  heard,  and  by  overtask- 
ing the  attention  weakens  the  impression  made  on  the  feelings. 
What  is  an  indivisible  whole  is  exhibited  in  separate  fragments; 
the  hearer  does  not  receive  a  clear  view  of  the  subject  as  a 
whole,  the  separate  statements  which,  had  they  been  brought 


248  PRINCIPAL  FORMS  OF  PKOSE.  Sec.  155 

together  under  one  point  of  view,  would  have  had  a  powerful 
effect  upon  him,  affect  him  but  feebly ;  the  connection  is  broken, 
and  there  is  given  rather  a  number  of  disconnected  thoughts 
than  one  compact  connected  discourse. 

In  endeavoring  to  avoid  the  extreme  of  too  minute  a  division, 
the  opposite  extreme  of  making  the  heads  too  general  must  be 
shunned.  If  a  great  variety  of  particulars  are  included  under 
one  head,  it  will  be  necessary  to  introduce  long  explanations 
and  abstract  discussions,  causing  the  discourse  to  become  merely 
didactic.  Ill  oratory  we  must  endeavor  to  secure  a  disposition 
that  admits  the  greatest  variety  of  concrete  illustrations  and 
practical  applications. 

4.  Among  a  number  of  arguments,  we  must  advance  from 
the  weaker  to  the  stronger. 

It  is  not  meant  by  this  that  what  follows  must  be  of  greater 
validity  in  itself  than  what  precedes,  but  that  it  must  not 
weaken  the  attention  nor  check  the  feelings  excited;  it  should 
rather  confirm  and  strengthen  the  conviction  produced,  keep 
up  the  interest  in  the  discussion,  and  conduct  forward  to 
the  final  decision.  Points  that  will  be  most  readily  under- 
stood and  admitted  to  be  true  by  the  hearers,  should  precede 
the  less  known  and  more  doubtful.  Arguments  that  are  more 
purely  intellectual  and  imply  a  more  composed  state  of  mind, 
should  precede  those  that  involve  a  more  direct  appeal  to  the 
imagination  and  passions. 

It  is  a  great  mistake  to  suppose  that  we  are  obeying  the 
law  of  progress,  when  we  begin  with  the  feeblest  arguments 
and  proceed  gradually  to  the  more  effective.  It  is  of  very 
great  importance  what  arguments  are  presented  first;  if  they 
are  manifestly  weak,  the  expectation  of  the  audience  will  be 
disappointed,  their  suspicions  awakened,  and  they  will  be  in- 
disposed to  attend  to  what  we  present  afterwards.  The  strong 
points  should  be  brought  forward  first,  provided  always  that 
we  avoid  closing  with  a  feeble  argument.  The  last  argument 
should  be  a  decisive  one,  gathering  up  into  itself  the  force  of  all 
that  precedes.  The  orator's  own  feelings  will,  in  most  cases, 
be  his  surest  guide:  that  which  produces  the  strongest  convic- 


Sec.  155  OIIATOKICAL  PROSE.  249 

lion  in  his  own  mind,  and  affects  him  most  powerfully,  will 
be  the  most  appropriate  to  insist  upon  in  the  close  of  his 
speech. 

No  rule  can  he  given  for  the  position  of  refutation.  As  it- 
is  merely  negative  in  its  character,  showing  that  no  valid  ob- 
jections can  be  urged  against  the  theme,  while  confirmation  is 
positive,  showing  that  there  are  solid  reasons  for  asserting  its 
truth,  conformity  to  the  rule  to  proceed  from  the  weaker  to  the 
stronger  would  seem  to  require  us  to  place  it  before  confirma- 
tion. When  the  hearers  are  familiar  with  the  objections,  and 
we  have  reason  to  believe  that  their  minds  will  be  prejudiced, 
or  unfitted  to  understand  and  weigh  what  we  intend  to  present 
to  them,  this  is  the  natural  method.  Circumstances,  however, 
often  make  it  necessary  to  depart  from  it,  and  to  introduce 
refutation  in  connection  with  the  positive  arguments,  or  after 
confirmation.  When  we  have  a  number  of  arguments  to 
refute,  we  should  begin  with  the  strongest,  always  observing 
the  rule  to  state  them  honestly  and  forcibly. 

5.  The  arguments  must  be  so  connected  as  to  afford  an  easy 
and  natural  transition  from  one  to  the  other. 

Want  of  continuity  is  destructive  to  the  effect  of  a  discourse 
designed  to  influence  the  will ;  the  attempt  to  conceal  the  want 
of  coherence  by  artificial  transitions  only  increases  the  evil. 
But  let  not  the  orator  seek  for  a  rigid,  scientific  connection  of 
thought.  It  indicates  an  ignorance  of  the  nature  of  eloquence 
to  demand  of  it  strict  demonstration,  in  which  is  given  a  series 
of  syllogisms,  of  which  the  conclusion  of  the  first  is  a  premise 
of  the  second.  Long  trains  of  subtle  reasoning  are  not  allowed 
in  oratory.  uTo  demand  demonstrations  from  an  orator,'7  says 
Aristotle,  "  would  be  very  much  like  allowing  a  mathematician 
to  employ  persuasion." 

"Unity  of  subject  is  a  characteristic  of  Demosthenes;  but 
continuous  or  subtle  ratiocination  never  is.  He  reasons,  in- 
deed, perpetually,  for  reasoning  is  the  staple  of  all  effective 
eloquence ;  but  never  was  a  truer  criticism  than  that  of  Lord 
Brougham, — <  that  his  reasonings  are  not  of  the  nature  of 
continuous  demonstration,  and  by  no  means  resemble  a  chain 


250  PRINCIPAL  FORMS  OF  PROSE.  Sec.  155 

of  mathematical  or  metaphysical  arguments.7  The  following 
observations  are  well  worthy  the  attention  of  every  speaker: 
4 If  by  this'  (the  assertion  that  Demosthenes  is  chiefly  charac- 
terized by  reasoning)  4is  only  meant  that  he  never  wanders 
from  the  subject,  that  each  remark  tells  upon  the  matter  in 
hand,  that  all  his  illustrations  are  brought  to  bear  upon  the 
point,  and  that  he  is  never  found  making  any  step  in  any 
direction,  which  does  not  advance  his  main  object,  and  lead 
towards  the  conclusion  to  which  he  is  striving  to  bring  his 
hearers,  the  observation  is  perfectly  just;  for  this  is  a  distin- 
guishing feature  in  the  character  of  his  eloquence.  But  if  it 
is  meant  to  be  said  that  those  Attic  orators,  and  especially 
their  great  chief,  made  speeches  in  which  long  chains  of  rea- 
soning are  to  be  found,  nothing  can  be  less  like  the  truth.  A 
variety  of  topics  are  handled  in  succession,  all  calculated  to 
strike  the  audience.'"  Henry  Rogers,  Essays. 

6.  The  appeals  to  the  will  ought  to  be  arranged  and  com- 
bined so  as  to  secure  the  greatest  economy  of  feeling,  and 
make  every  emotion  and  passion  excited,  contribute  to  the 
attainment  of  the  main  object. 

Skill  in  combining  different  motives  so  as  to  call  forth  the 
various  principles  that  will  modify  and  strengthen  each  other, 
requires  a  knowledge  of  human  nature  and  character  to  be 
acquired  only  by  long  experience  and  reflection.  A  distinction 
is  made  in  the  active  powers;  to  some  we  attribute  greater 
dignity  and  worth  than  to  others:  this  distinction  should  be  ob- 
served by  the  orator;  and  as  he  addresses  man  as  a  free  and 
moral  agent,  he  should,  in  arranging  the  motives  to  be  pre- 
sented, proceed  from  the  lowrer  to  the  higher. 

156.  Peroration. — That  a  conclusion  is  an  indispensable 
part  of  every  literary  composition  has  been  already  shown 
(sec.  32).  If  it  is  so  important  in  other  kinds  of  discourse,  it 
must  be  especially  important  in  a  speech  intended  to  determine 
the  will  to  a  definite  action. 

The  chief  purpose  of  the  peroration  in  oratory  is  to  render 
permanent  the  impression  made  by  the  arguments  and  motives 


Sec.  156  ORATORICAL  PROSE. 

presented,  and  to  bring  the  minds  and  wills  that  have  been 
already  convinced  and  moved  to  a  definite  decision  in  our 
lav  or. 

It  is  of  different  forms,  and  appears  with  greater  prominence 
in  some  speeches  than  in  others.  In  some  discourses  there  is 
such  a  regular  gradation  of  parts  that  the  hist  argument  or 
last  motive  presented  forms  a  suitable  peroration;  in  others  it 
is  a  distinct  part  added  to  the  end  of  the  discourse.  In  some 
cases  it  is  designed  to  recall  to  the  hearer's  mind  the  substance 
of  what  has  been  said ;  in  others,  to  move  the  passions  and 
will  to  act. 

The  former  is  employed  when  the  main  object  of  the  dis- 
course is  to  inform  and  convince.  It  is  then  advisable  to  give 
either  a  recapitulation  of  the  chief  points  that  have  been  dis- 
cussed, or  to  close  with  an  idea  which  includes  the  theme  and 
exhibits  it  in  new  aspects  and  applications.  A  recapitulation 
is  more  necessary  with  an  uncultivated  than  with  a  mature, 
cultivated  audience  5  and  is  indispensable  after  a  long  course 
of  reasoning. 

A  pathetic  peroration,  in  which  emotions  and  passions  are 
called  forth  and  directed  to  a  given  object,  is  appropriate  in 
discourses  which  aim  more  to  remove  indifference  and  awaken 
interest  than  to  inform  and  convince.  It  is  not  so  frequent  in 
modern  as  in  ancient  eloquence;  it  can  be  most  conveniently 
employed  in  subjects  in  which  a  personal  interest  predomi- 
nates; as  in  the  accusation  and  defense  of  criminals. 

dualities  of  the  Peroration, — 1.  The  peroration  should 
contain  a  distinct  and  important  thought.  Avoid  all  mere 
vague  effusions  of  feeling  and  passion  which  contain  nothing 
for  the  understanding.  Eloquence  produces  its  effects  by  the 
exhibition  of  truth,  not  by  error  or  blind  impulse.  Avoid  also 
closing  with  a  feeble  commonplace  thought — a  frequent  fault 
with  those  who  feel  that  something  must  be  said,  and  do  not 
know  what-  to  say.  ^vow,  if  at  all,  is  the  time,  to  call  into 
vigorous  harmonious  activity  the  understanding,  imagination, 
feelings,  and  affections  of  the  audience.  Nothing  can  have  a 


252  PRINCIPAL  FORMS. OF  PROSE.  Sec.  156 

more  disastrous  effect  than  to  dismiss  them  with  a  trite,  unim- 
portant thought:  we  should  seek  one  that  will  occupy  and 
influence  the  whole  soul. 

2.  The  peroration  must  be  practical.     The  entire  speech  has 
been  a  struggle  to  gain  the  mastery  of  the  wills  of  the  hearers  5 
in  the  conclusion  the  effort  becomes  more  prominent,  the  ap- 
peal to  the  heart  becomes  more  direct.     Even  when  the  main 
thought  of  the  peroration  is  a  theoretical  truth ,  it  will  be  ex- 
hibited in  its  practical  aspects.     The  orator  will  avoid  as  much 
as  possible,  even  in  discourses  in  which,  the  didactic  element 
predominates,  closing  with  views  that  employ  merely  the  un- 
derstanding. 

3.  It  must  be  suitable  to  the  discourse  of  which  it  is  a  part. 
It  must   grow  out  of  it,  and  be  in  harmony  with  it,  in  the 
thoughts  it  contains,  its  tone,  and  its  style.     We  can  never 
pronounce   on    the  excellence    of   a  peroration  without  first 
learning  the  preceding  train  of  thought,  and  no  peroration  can 
be  a  good  one  that  does  not  accord  with  it :  the  virtue  of  ap- 
propriateness is  the  first  and  all-important  one. 

4.  When  a  recapitulation  is  given,  we  must  avoid  intro- 
ducing points  that  have  not  been  already  given.     The  con- 
clusion is  not  the  place  in  which  to  bring  forward  new  truths, 
hut  to  renew  the  impression  of  those  already  presented.     The 
enumeration  should  contain  none  but  the  main  points^  which, 
to  prevent  the  evil  effects  of  monotony,  ought  to  be  given  in 
a   different  form   and  order  from  that  in   which  they  were 
originally  given.     It  should  be  a  rapid,  condensed,  energetic 
summing  up  of  the  leading  ideas  so  that   their  combined 
weight  may  be  brought  to  bear  on  the  understanding  and 
wilL 

5.  In  appealing  to  the  will,  the  orator  must  refrain  from  all 
immoral  motives.     Ancient  eloquence  permitted   appeals  to 
the  passions  that  modern  eloquence  disallows.     Genuine  elo- 
quence excites  no  emotion  or  passion  that  violates  the  freedom 
and  moral  worth  of  man.     Excess  of  passion  is  also  to  be 
avoided;  it  should  not  be  greater  than  the  subject  demands,  cor 
show  a  want  of  self-control  on  the  part  of  the  speaker.     Espe- 


Sec.  157  ORATORICAL  PROSE.  253 

daily  must  we  guard  against  taking  mere  emotional  excite- 
ment, which  is  mostly  enervating,  seldom  leading  to  practical 
results,  for  a  rational,  linn  decision  of  the  will. 

(J.  The  peroration  must  be  brief.  The  arguments  and  mo- 
tives have  all  been  given,  no  new  subjects  are  to  be  discussed, 
and  the  speaker  should  hasten  to  the  end.  The  briefer  the 
peroration,  provided  it  is  not  abrupt,  or  does  not  leave  the  dis- 
cussion incomplete,  the  more  effective  is  it  likely  to  be :  to 
extend  it,  after  the  hearers  are  satisfied,  and  are  expecting  and 
desiring  the  speaker  to  close,  will  inevitably  undo  all  that  the 
discourse  has  accomplished. 

7.  The  language  of  the  peroration  must  be  suited  to  the 
character  of  the  entire  discourse.  Greater  condensation  is  re- 
quired, as  the  minds  of  the  hearers  have  been  prepared  and 
their  powers  called  into  vigorous  energy;  the  various  means 
of  presenting  thought  with  vividness  and  energy — metaphors, 
personification,  climax — may  be  employed.  It  is  a  mistake  to 
suppose  that  the  peroration  should  always  be  of  a  vehement 
character.  Even  in  speeches  intended  principally  to  move 
the  feelings,  a  calm,  earnest,  simple  style  is  often  the  most 
effective. 

157.  The  Characteristics  of  Oratorical  Style.-— An  oration, 
as  has  been  seen,  is  a  discourse  on  a  subject  of  common  in- 
terest, spoken  to  a  mixed  audience,  and  intended  to  persuade 
them  to  a  particular  action  or  course  of  conduct.  The  style 
appropriate  to  such  a  discourse  is  neither  that  of  didactic  or 
historical  prose,  nor  of  poetry.  Ordinary  prose  aims  to  inform 
and  instruct,  and  addresses  the  understanding;  poetry  aims  to 
impart  intellectual  pleasure,  and  appeals  to  the  imagination 
and  sensibilities;  but  eloquence  calls  into  vigorous  energy  all 
the  powers  of  the  soul — understanding,  imagination,  emotion, 
and  passion, — in  order,  by  their  combined  action,  to  determine 
the  will.  It  requires  a  style  combining  the  perfections  of 
ordinary  prose  and  the  vivacity  of  poetry.  The  characteristics 
of  oratorical  style  are  as  follows: 


254  PRINCIPAL  FOEMS  OF  PEOSE.  Sec.  157 

1.  Direct  Address. — A  speech  is  not  a  disquisition  pro- 
nounced in  the  presence  of  an  audience,  it  is  of  the  nature  of 
a  conversation.     The  speaker  is  brought  face  to  face  with  the 
hearers,  whom  he  addresses  in  the  most  direct  manner.     They 
must  realize  from  the  beginning  to  the  end  of  the  discourse 
that  all  that  is  said  concerns  them  and  is  spoken  to  them. 
The   orator  begins   by  addressing  his   hearers,  and  employs 
throughout  his  discourse  the  various  forms  of  expression  that 
occur  in  conversation;  he  prefers   the  second  person  to  the 
third,  makes  frequent  use,  in  the  more  impassioned  parts,  of  in- 
terrogation, repeats  a  thought  when  he  perceives  that  it  is  not 
understood  or  does  not  make  the  impression  he  wishes,  and 
breaks   off    the   development   of   a  thought   when    he   finds 
that  his  hearers  anticipate   him.     A  discourse  in  which  this 
characteristic  is   wanting   may  be  an  elegant  and  profound 
dissertation,  but  it  can  not  be  classed  among  the  products  of 
eloquence. 

2.  Popularity. — The  assembly  addressed  is  supposed  to  be 
composed  of  persons  differing  in  capacity,  attainments,  char- 
acter, and  calling.     A  public  speaker  is  not  at  liberty  to  select 
from  it  one  particular  class  and  adapt  his  discourse  exclusively 
to  it;  he  must  rise  above  all  accidental  and  artificial  distinc- 
tions and  strive  to  convey  his  thoughts  clearly  and  forcibly  to 
the  majority  of  the  hearers. 

Arguments,  illustrations,  and  allusions,  that  presuppose  ex- 
tensive knowledge  and  habits  of  prolonged  thinking  are  neces- 
sarily excluded.  If  it  should  be  necessary  to  introduce  abstruse 
topics,  every  means  must  be  used  to  impart  to  them  the  greatest 
possible  intelligibility.  The  language  in  which  the  thoughts 
are  clothed  must  be  idiomatic,  and  will  often  be  homely.  More 
than  in  any  other  class  of  compositions  must  there  be  a  sparing 
use  of  foreign  words:  to  many  of  the  audience  they  would  con- 
vey no  meaning  or  a  false  one.  For  the  same  reason  scientific 
terms  that  are  not  a  part  of  the  current  language,  and  words 
and  phrases  peculiar  to  one  locality  or  to  a  profession  or  trade, 
are  to  be  rejected.  The  language  of  eloquence  is  the  recog- 


Sec.  157  ORATORICAL  PROSE.  L'.Vi 

nized  national    language  which   is  understood  by  all  without 
distinction  of  class  and  locality. 

3.  Simplicity. — Simplicity,  by  which  is  meant  the  employ- 
ment of  the  fewest  and  most  effective  means  of  attaining  our 
object,  is  the  ornament  of  great  thoughts,  and  the  natural  ex- 
pression of  an  earnest  desire  to  communicate  our  convictions 
and    feelings   to   others.     It   discards   all  circuitous,  indirect 
modes  of  expression;  all  vague  hints,  saying  one  thing  when 
meaning  another,   and   chooses   such   words   as    convey   the 
thought  in  the  most  straightforward  manner.     An  indirect, 
ironical  style  has  its  charms  in  some  kind  of  composition,  but 
in  oratory  it  leaves  the  impression  of  a  want  of  earnestness. 
Formality  is  also  incompatible  with  simplicity.     It  would  be 
unnatural  to  address  a  large  body  of  men  in  the  same  manner 
in  which  we  converse  with  a  few  friends ;  a  greater  degree  of 
elaborateness  and  stateliness  is  unavoidable,  but  when  carried 
too  far  it  destroys  sympathy  between  the' speaker  and  hearers. 
The  diction  of  eloquence  is  that  of  idealized  conversation,  it  is 
familiar  and  colloquial,  but  never  vulgar.     Simplicity  is  also 
opposed  to   the  affectation  of  novelty  and  originality.     The 
search  for  what  is  ingenious  and  subtle,  for  new  and  startling 
combinations  of  ideas,  will  often  produce  admiration  of  the 
ingenuity  of  the  speaker,  but  will  draw  the  attention  away 
from  the  main  subject. 

4.  Dignity. — Genuine  popularity  and  simplicity  are  not  in- 
consistent with  dignity;  on  the  contrary,  they  are  inseparable 
from  it.     Of  one  who  assumes  to  instruct  and  direct  a  body  of 
men  in  a  matter  connected  with  their  common  interests  we 
expect  that  he  will  realize  the  importance  of  that  which  he 
advocates  and  the  seriousness  of   the  occasion,  and  that  he 
will  manifest  respect  for  those  whom  he  addresses.     Dignity 
of  style  is  the  natural  expression  of  this  state  of  mind.     It 
forbids; — 

(1)  Whatever  violates  the  self-respect  of  the  hearers, — all 
words  indicating  on  the  part  of  the  speaker  moral  corruption 


250  PRINCIPAL  FORMS  OF  PROSE.  Sec.  157 

or  want  of  refinement.  A  false  notion  of  popularity  leads 
many  to  descend  to  coarseness  and  to  violate  decorum.  But 
vulgarity  is  not  popularity.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that 
the  effect  of  a  discourse  is  due  in  a  great  measure  to  the  im- 
pression made  by  the  character  of  the  speaker.  The  revelation 
of  moral  deformity  or  of  vulgarity  of  spirit  disgusts  even  the 
depraved  among  the  audience. 

(2)  Ludicrous  ideas  and  suggestions  when  the  occasion  calls 
for  seriousness ;  they  betray  a  levity  that  renders  the  speaker 
unworthy  to  represent  the  interests  that  he  advocates. 

(3)  While  it  is  the  duty  of  a  public  speaker  to  avoid  every 
thing  that  may  offend   the  most   fastidious,  he  must  guard 
against  effeminacy,  which  is  equally  as  vulgar  as  coarseness, 
and  often  more  vulgar. 

(4)  The  obtrusion  of  the  speaker's  personal  interests,  merits, 
wrongs,  likes  and  dislikes.     The  audience  is  gathered  to  hear 
of  matters  that  are  of  interest  to  all,  and  regards  it  a&  an  insult 
to  be  forced  to  listen  to  what  concerns  the  speaker  only. 

Dignity  is  thus  opposed  to  vulgarity,  levity,  effeminacy,  and 
vanity. 

5.  Energy. — Energy  of  style,  which  is  the  result  of  vigor 
of  understanding,  liveliness  of  imagination,  and  strong  passion, 
can  not  be  wanting  in  any  work  laying  claim  to  literary  ex- 
cellence; but  nowhere  is  it  so  indispensable  as  in  oratory. 
The  weightiest  thoughts  are  ineffective  when  delivered  in  a 
dry  and  feeble  style;  and  a  style  that  in  other  kinds  of  compo- 
sition would  be  regarded  as  forcible  will  often  be  feeble  in  an 
oratorical  discourse.  The  public  speaker  must  seek  to  do  more 
than  present  his  ideas  with  clearness  and  in  their  logical  con- 
nection, he  must  impress  them  strongly  on  the  mind,  excite 
the  imagination,  and  arouse  the  passions. 

In  order  to  gain  our  sympathy  and  interest  it  is  necessary 
to  do  more  than  to  show  that  the  objects  ought  to  excite  cer- 
tain feelings,  or  to  exhibit  them  in  a  general  and  hurried  man- 
ner. Vivid  representation  is  the  life  of  eloquence:  the  objects 
must  be  set  before  the  mind  with  something  of  the  fullness  and 


Sec.  157  ORATORICAL  PROSE.  257 

liveliness  of  an  object  of  sense,  and  kept  before  it  long  enough 
to  allow  them  to  produce  the  desired  impression.  The  princi- 
pal means  of  imparting  energy  to  style  are: 

(1)  I'xiiu/  particular   and   individual   terms    instead   of 
general  ones.     It  is  difficult  to  attend  to  a  discourse  in  which 
the   ideas   are    presented   in   a    general    and    abstract    form. 
Notions  are  vague  in  proportion  to  their  extension;  they  can 
be  made  distinct  only  by  converting  them  into  particular  ones. 
This  requires  an  effort  of  attention  which  withdraws  the  mind 
from  the  train  of  thoughts  presented  by  the  speaker.     It  must 
be  remembered  also,  that  the  impression  of  a  thought  upon  the 
feelings  and  passions  is  weakened  in  proportion  to  the  difficulty 
which  the  understanding  finds  in  comprehending  it,  and  that 
hearers  are  far  less  able  to  gather  the  full  import  of  a  general 
statement  than  readers.     Many   discourses,   the   thoughts   of 
which  are  important  and  noble,  are  cold  and  lifeless  from  the 
neglect  of  this  rule. 

(2)  The  appropriate  use  of  figurative  language.     Oratory 
resembles  poetry  in  its  free  use  of  figures;  but  differs  from  it 
in  the  manner  in  which  it  uses  them.     Many  speakers  of  lively 
fancy  forget  the  essential  difference  of  these  two  classes  of 
composition,  and  make  use  of  imagery  which  would  be  appro- 
priate in  imaginative  literature,  but  is  incompatible  with  the 
earnest,  practical  nature  of  eloquence. 

Figures  should  never  be  employed  in  a  speech  merely  with 
a  view  to  please;  they  are  not  ornaments,  but  means  of  ex- 
hibiting ideas  vividly  and  in  their  full  proportions. 

They  should  be  used  sparingly.  All  feel  that  it  is  unnatural 
in  one  who  is  intent  on  convincing  and  persuading  to  indulge 
in  the  play  of  fancy.  Their  excessive  use  enervates  the  style; 
they  may  please  but  they  withdraw  from  the  main  object. 
The  permanent  effects  at  which  eloquence  aims  are  to  be  ac- 
complished only  by  the  communication  of  thoughts,  and  there 
is  great  danger  of  allowing  figures  of  speech  to  supplant  solid 
arguments. 

They  should  be  brief.  The  poet  is  allowed  to  expand  and 
to  enter  into  minute  details,  in  order  to  exhibit  a  pleasing 

Rhel.  22 


258  PRINCIPAL  FORMS  OF  PROSE.  Sec.  157 

picture  to  tlie  imagination  5  the  orator  aims  to  lead  to  action  and 
can  not  permit  his  hearers  to  indulge  in  the  pleasures  of  passive 
contemplation.  The  figures  suited  to  his  purpose  are  brief 
and  rapid,  such  as  the  imagination  dictates  under  the  influ- 
ence of  excited  passion.  Tropes  and  more  especially  meta- 
phors are  preferred  to  similes.  The  latter  are  suited  to  a  more 
quiet  mood;  when  employed  in  oratory,  they  should  be  short, 
and  thrown  into  the  midst  of  the  arguments  and  motives. 
Familiar  and  even  homely  figures  are  to  be  preferred  to  such 
as  are  more  graceful  and  elegant,  if  they  are  more  generally 
intelligible  and  adapted  to  produce  a  stronger  impression  on 
the  hearer. 

(3)  Energy  is  promoted  ~by  copiousness  of  style.  Copious- 
ness is  not  to  be  understood  as  distinct  from  precision :  the 
rule  admits  of  no  exception,  that  the  exact  thought  should  be 
conveyed  with  the  rejection  of  whatever  is  superfluous  in 
thought  and  expression.  A  languid  redundancy  of  words  pro- 
ceeds sometimes  from  an  effort  to  be  clear,  sometimes  from 
wrong  notions  of  dignity,  more  frequently  from  poverty  of 
ideas.  Whatever  the  cause,  it  is  destructive  of  energy.  When 
the  hearers  are  compelled  to  listen  to  what  they  are  already 
familiar  with,  or  to  condense  what  is  unduly  expanded,  they 
become  wearied  with  the  useless  labor  imposed  on  them,  get 
confused,  and  soon  lose  the  connection  of  the  discourse.  Ex- 
temporary speakers  especially  are  liable  to  this  fault. 

But  in  order  to  avoid  prolixity  and  verbosity  it  is  not  re- 
quired that  we  briefly  indicate  our  thoughts  without  developing 
them  and  convey  them  with  the  greatest  possible  economy  of 
words.  A  rapid  succession  of  condensed  statements  would 
only  bewilder  the  audience,  and  even  if  apprehended,  would 
have  no  effect.  It  is  the  speaker's  duty  to  detain  the 
minds  of  his  hearers  upon  the  ideas  until  they  call  forth  the 
appropriate  feelings.  A  certain  degree  of  copiousness  or  full- 
ness is  a  characteristic  of  a  genuine  oratorical  style.  It  is  a 
matter  of  oratorical  tact  to  decide  when  it  is  proper  to  be 
brief,  and  when  to  be  full.  The  degree  of  fullness  will  be  de- 
termined by  the  nature  of  the  subject  and  the  character  of  the 


Sec.  157  ORATORICAL  PROSE.  259 

audience;  the  thoughts  must  never  be  expanded  so  far  as  to 
interfere  with  the  continuous  progress  of  the  discourse  or  to 
destroy  the  proportion  of  its  parts. 

The  two  great  methods  of  giving  copiousness  to  the  style 
are  repetition  and  amplification.  In  addressing  a  mixed  audi- 
ence the  speaker  often  iinds  that  the  truth,  in  the  form  in 
which  lie  has  expressed  it,  is  not  fully  understood  or  properly 
appreciated  by  many  of  his  hearers;  he  is  obliged  to  vary  the 
statement  of  it  if  he  would  make  sure  of  its  reception  into 
their  minds.  Or  he  may  amplify  the  thought  by  analyzing  it, 
enumerating  its  parts,  or  dwelling  on  some  striking  character- 
istic that  will  bring  the  whole  object  into  distinct  view.  lie 
may  add  to  its  force  by  iirst  amplifying,  and  then  repeating 
the  thought  in  a  condensed,  sententious,  figurative  expres- 
sion. 

Those  who  would  acquire  a  copiousness  of  style  which  avoids 
both  extremes  of  redundancy  and  conciseness,  should  cultivate 
what  Whately  calls  a  suggestive  style,  which  lie  describes  as 
that  which,  "  without  making  a  distinct,  though  brief  mention 
of  a  multitude  of  particulars,  shall  put  the  hearer's  mind  into 
the  same  train  of  thought  as  the  speaker's  and  suggest  to  him 
more  than  is  actually  expressed.  ...  A  particular  state- 
ment, example,  or  proverb,  of  which  the  general  application  is 
obvious,  will  often  save  a  long  abstract  rule,  which  needs  much 
explanation  and  limitation;  and  will  thus  suggest  much  that 
is  not  actually  said,  thus  answering  the  purpose  of  a  mathe- 
matical diagram,  which,  though  itself  an  individual,  serves  as 
a  representative  of  a  class.  Slight  hints  also  respecting  the 
subordinate  branches  of  any  subject,  and  notices  of  the  princi- 
ples that  will  apply  to  them,  etc.,  may  often  be  substituted  for 
digressive  discussions,  which  though  laboriously  compressed, 
would  yet  occupy  a  much  greater  space.  Judicious  divisions, 
likewise,  and  classifications,  save  much  tedious  enumeration, 
and,  as  has  been  formerly  remarked,  a  well-chosen  epithet  may 
often  suggest,  and  therefore  supply  the  place  of,  an  entire  argu- 
ment." Rhetoric,  pp.  356?  357. 


2GO  PRINCIPAL  FORMS  OF  PROSE.  Sec.  158 

158.  Different  Kinds  of  Oratory. — So  far,  we  have  con- 
sidered the  principles  of  eloquence  in  general.     But  there  are 
different  kinds  of  eloquence,  each  of  which,  while  subject  to 
the  laws  already  given,  has  its  special  laws.     The  aptitudes 
and  attainments  that  qualify  a  speaker  for  one  kind  do  not 
necessarily  fit  him  for  the  others.     One  may  be  successful  as 
an  advocate  in  a  court  of  law  and  fail  in  a  deliberative  assem- 
bly; and  an  effective  pulpit  orator  may  be  incapable  of  senato- 
rial or  forensic  eloquence. 

Oratory  is  divided  as  to  the  nature  of  the  result  to  be  pro- 
duced into  secular  and  sacred. 

It  is  divided  with  respect  to  its  dominant  idea  into 

1.  Political  oratory; 

2.  Judicial  or  forensic  oratory ; 

3.  Sacred  oratory. 

159.  Political  Oratory. — The  object  of  political  oratory  is 
to  discuss  questions  affecting  the  public  welfare.     It  implies  a 
number  who  have  met  together,  either  as  private  individuals 
or  officially,  for  the  purpose  of  deliberation.     The  question  to 
be  acted  upon  is  one  that  concerns  the  interests  of  the  whole 
nation  or  of  some  portion  of  it.     The  great  characteristic  of 
political  oratory,  that  which  distinguishes  it  from  forensic  and 
sacred,  is  that  it  deals  chiefly  with  questions  of  expediency  and 
utility. 

The  two  great  divisions  of  this  species  of  oratory  are, 

1.  The   eloquence  of  legislative   assemblies — senatorial   or 
parliamentary  oratory . 

2.  The  eloquence  of  public  assemblies — popular  oratory. 

160.  Parliamentary    Oratory. — Parliamentary    eloquence 
embraces  a  wide  range  of  most  important  subjects.     It  deals 
with  the  laws  and  measures  which  regulate  the  foreign  and 
domestic  relations  of  the  state,  and  aifect,  directly  or  indirectly, 
the  prosperity  and  happiness  of  every  family,  the  interests  of 
morality  and  religion,  and  extend  their  influence  for  good  or 
evil  to  remote  periods  of  the  future. 


Sec.  160  ORATORICAL  PKOSE.  201 

In  handling  such  questions,  the  political  orator  does  not 
seek  to  explain  them  for  their  own  sake,  merely  to  communi- 
cate theoretical  knowledge,  or  to  exhibit  the  great  principles 
involved  in  them.  lie  examines  them  with  reference  to  their 
bearings  on  the  welfare  of  the  nation;  he  considers  the  relation 
of  the  measure  proposed  to  existing  institutions,  and  the  cir- 
cumstances in  which  it  is  to  be  realized;  traces  its  conse- 
quences, and  urges  its  adoption  or  rejection  on  the  ground  of 
the  benefits  or  evils  resulting  from  it.  The  tendency  of  mind 
which  seizes  on  the  speculative  aspects  of  a  subject,  and  strives 
to  reduce  knowledge  to  a  rigid  system,  which  fastens  upon  ab- 
stract truth  and  disregards  the  accidental  circumstances  that 
accompany  and  modify  it  in  actual  life,  is  the  opposite  of  that 
which  characterizes  a  statesman  and  orator. 

To  attain  to  eminence  in  parliamentary  eloquence  demands 
talents  as  rare  as  are  exalted  philosophical  powers.  The  orator 
must  be  able  to  contemplate  his  subject  under  many  and  com- 
plex relations,  and  to  trace  its  remote  effects  upon  a  mass  of  >' 
diverse  interests.  This  is  possible  with  those  only  who,  to 
great  powers  of  reasoning  and  generalization,  add  an  extensive 
and  profound  knowledge  of  law,  history,  political  science,  and 
statistics,  and  a  familiarity  with  the  many  interests  that  can  be 
affected  by  their  actions. 

The  subject  is  given  to  the  speaker  in  the  shape  of  a  resolu- 
tion. But  the  real  question  is  often  so  concealed,  so  perverted 
by  misrepresentation  and  prejudice,  that  great  subtlety  is 
needed  to  extricate  it  and  set  it  forth  in  its  true  light. 

The  arguments  and  motives  employed  must  be  such  as  ap- 
peal to  the  ordinary  mind.  A  body  of  practical  men  wrho  meet 
to  decide  a  question  of  practical  importance  will  listen  with 
impatience  to  a  profound  discussion  of  first  principles.  Such 
arguments  have,  in  fact,  had  but  little  influence  in  securing 
the  adoption  or  rejection  of  political  measures.  Macaulay  has 
given  us,  in  his  account  of  the  repeal  of  the  Licensing  Act,  an 
instance  of  the  efficacy  of  what  seem  petty  reasons,  after  the 
most  brilliant  argumentation  had  failed. 

Milton's  defense  of  the  liberty  of  unlicensed  printing,  in  his 


262  PRINCIPAL  FORMS  OP  PEOSE.  Sec.  160 

Areopagitica,  produced  no  effect.  The  paper  containing  the 
grounds  on  which  at  a  later  day  the  House  of  Commons  voted 
to  repeal  the  act,  was  of  a  very  different  character  from  Mil- 
ton's magnificent  discourse.  "  All  their  objections/'  says 
Macaulay,  u  will  be  found  to  relate  to  matters  of  detail.  On 
the  great  question  of  principle,  on  the  question  whether  the 
liberty  of  unlicensed  printing  be,  on  the  whole,  a  blessing  or  a 
curse  to  society,  riot  a  word  is  said.  The  Licensing  Act  is  con- 
demned, not  as  a  thing  essentially  evil,  but  on  account  of  the 
petty  grievances,  the  exactions,  the  jobs,  the  commercial  re- 
strictions, the  domiciliary  visits,  which  were  incidental  to  it." 

The  topics  of  the  arguments  appropriate  to  political  oratory 
in  general,  and  to  that  of  legislative  bodies  in  particular,  will 
be  discovered  by  asking  what  are  the  main  objections  that  can 
be  urged  against  a  measure,  and  which  its  friends  may  have 
to  meet.  We  find  then  that  they  are  expected  to  prove  that 
the  measure  is  legal;  that  it  is  possible;  that  it  can  be  easily 
accomplished;  and  that  it  is  necessary  or  expedient.  It  is 
plain  that  it  is  easier  to  oppose  than  to  defend.  For,  while  it 
is  sufficient  to  cause  the  rejection  of  a  scheme  to  show  that  it 
fails  in  any  one  of  tliese  conditions,  to  warrant  its  adoption  it 
must  be  proved  to  have  them  all — to  be  not  only  legal,  but 
also  practicable,  easy,  and  expedient. 

The  great  idea  to  which  these  ideas  are  subordinate  is  that 
of  the  welfare  of  the  state.  The  leading  motive  to  which 
political  eloquence  appeals  is  rational  patriotism;  a  patriotism 
founded  on  knowledge,  reflection,  and  the  sense  of  duty,  which 
is  therefore  free  from  the  prejudices,  exclusiveness,  and  ex- 
travagances of  blind,  instinctive  patriotism. 

Its  Essential  Qualities. — As  essential  qualities  of  parlia- 
mentary oratory  may  be  mentioned: — 

1.  Moral  earnestness.  Although  the  questions  brought  be- 
fore a  legislative  body  relate  mainly  to  material  interests,  they 
have  moral  aspects  which  ought  never  to  be  overlooked  in 
discussing  them.  The  state  has  a  moral  character  and  destiny; 
and  political  eloquence  attains  an  elevated  character  only  when 


Sec.  160  ORATORICAL  PROSK.  W> 

tliis  is  recognized, and  material  are  subordinated  to  moral  ends. 
This  elevated  moral  earnestness,  which  strives  to  realize,  the 
principles  of  right  in  the  relations  and  institutions  of  society, 
pervades  all  the  masterpieces  of  parliamentary  eloquence. 

U.  Lof/iad  method.  The  speaker  is  often  obliged  to  go 
largely  into  the  details  of  the  measure  he  advocates,  and  has 
thus  a  great  mass  of  facts  and  statistics  to  bring  forward.  A 
judicious  selection  of  the  essential  points,  and  their  skillful 
combination  and  arrangement  are  indispensable.  Logical 
method  must  pervade  and  govern  the  whole. 

3.  Extemporaneous  delivery.     But    the    logical    method 
must  not  be  obtrusive.     This  species  of  discourse  especially 
shuns  stiffness  and  formality,  and  demands  the  appearance  of 
being  unpremeditated.     There  is  an  aversion  to  advice  given 
in  set  speeches.     An  elaborate  speech  composed  in  the  study 
would  be  inappropriate  and  unnatural  if  delivered  in  the  midst 
of  an  excited  debate;  many  of  its  arguments  would  be  already 
superseded;  it  would  pass  over  objections  that  require  to  be 
noticed;  it  would  not  be  adapted  to  the  course  which  the  de- 
bate has  taken,  and  would  be  cold  and  unimpressive. 

4.  Novelty.     One  of  the  greatest  difficulties  with  which  a 
speaker  in  a  legislative  assembly  has  to  contend  arises  from 
the  fact  that  the  audience  is  already  familiar  with  the  subject. 
If  the  debate  has  been  protracted  the  different  aspects  of  the 
subject  have  been  presented,  and  the  hearers  are  impatient  of 
further  discussion.     To  repeat  what  has  already  been  often 
said,   to  bring  forward  arguments  which  they  have  already 
heard,  to  refute  what  has  been  often  refuted,  will  excite  only 
disgust.     The  speaker  who  wishes  to  be  tolerated  must  task 
his  invention  to  discover  new  and  important  aspects  of  the 
matter  discussed  and  give  a  new  turn  to  the  debate. 

5.  Simplicity  and  (lif/nity.     The  style  should  be  adapted  to 
an   assembly  convened   to   deliberate  on   important   matters. 
There  arise  occasions  when  the  principles  discussed  are  so  im- 
portant, and  the  interests  involved  are  so  vast,  that  the  style 
rises  to  grandeur  and  sublimity;  but  its  ordinary  characteris- 
tics are  simplicity  and  dignity.     Taste  in  reference  to  parlia- 


264  PRINCIPAL  FORMS  OF  PROSE.  Sec.  160 

mentary  eloquence  has  undergone  great  changes;  the  style 
that  was  popular  fifty  years  ago  in  the  British  Parliament  and 
the  American  Congress  would  not  be  tolerated  now.  These 
bodies  have  become  more  entirely  places  for  transacting  busi- 
ness, and  public  speaking  has  accommodated  itself  to  the 
change.  Display  of  learning,  irrelevant  discussions,  superflu- 
ous statements,  direct  appeals  to  feeling,  are  listened  to  with 
impatience.  Imagery  can  be  employed  but  rarely;  figures 
of  emphasis  are  frequent — such  as  interrogation,  exclama- 
tion. 

Popular  Oratory. — The  eloquence  of  public  assemblies,  as 
of  mass  meetings,  etc.,  resembles  that  off legislative  bodies  in 
being  concerned  with  matters  connected  with  the  welfare  of 
the  country,  and  in  appealing  to  the  same  motives — those  of 
patriotism.  It  differs  from  it  in  being  addressed  to  a  large, 
mixed  gathering,  and  consequently  is  more  popular  in  its  char- 
acter. But  it  is  subject  to  the  same  general  laws.  Good 
sense,  sound  logic,  sincere  conviction,  respect  for  the  moral 
freedom  and  dignity  of  the  hearers  are  as  indispensably  neces- 
sary in  addressing  a  mass  meeting  as  in  addressing  a  body  of 
senators. 

181.  Judicial  or  Forensic  Oratory. — The  province  of  ju- 
dicial or  forensic  oratory  is  in  the  proceedings  of  courts  of  law. 
It  aims  to  persuade  a  judge  and  jury  to  give  a  just  and  im- 
partial decision  on  a  question  concerning  rights  and  wrongs 
remediable  at  law  between  two  parties, — the  plaintiff  whose 
rights  have  been  affected  and  who  brings  the  suit,  and  the 
defendant  who  has  committed  the  injury  and  against  whom  the 
action  is  brought. 

Compared  with  Political  Oratory. — Its  distinctive  char- 
acteristics will  best  be  seen  by  comparing  it  with  political 
oratory,  especially  with  that  of  legislative  assemblies. 

1-  The  nature  of  its  subjects. — The  legislator  makes  laws, 


Sec.  161  ORATORICAL  PROSE.  2G5 

the  lawyer  applies  them.  He  has  given  to  him  a  particular 
fact  which  took  place  in  the  past,  and  the  laws  of  the  land  • 
his  task  is  to  determine  the  relation  of  the  law  to  the  fact ;  in 
other  words,  to  ascertain  the  legal  character  of  the  act.  The 
subjects  are  therefore  more  particular  than  those  of  political 
oratory ;  the  lawyer  is  obliged  frequently  to  become  familiar 
with  a  multitude  of  petty  details  which  have  only  a  personal- 
interest.  AYhile  the  legislator  looks  to  the  future  results  of  an 
act,  and  endeavors  to  trace  its  effects  on  the  public  welfare,  the 
lawyer  is  confined  to  showing  what  has  taken  place,  and  to 
determining  its  nature.  He  can  not  take  the  broad  general 
views  which  mark  the  eloquence  of  a  statesman;  what  are 
especially  required  of  him  are,  a  careful  scrutiny  of  all  the 
circumstances,  weighing  of  evidence,  acuteness  to  detect  real 
identity  and  resemblance  under  apparent  difference,  and  essen- 
tial difference  under  apparent  resemblance. 

2.  The  end  to  be  accomplished. — The  aim  of  parliament- 
ary eloquence  is  to  persuade  to  the  adoption  of  a  measure  cal- 
culated to  benefit  the  country,  or  the  rejection  of  one  that  is 
likely  to  be  injurious.  The  public  welfare  is  the  governing 
idea;  motives  of  expediency  and  utility  are  freely  employed. 
The  aim  of  forensic  oratory  is  to  lead  to  a  decision  which 
shall  be,  first,  in  accordance  with  the  law  and  the  facts  as 
proved;  and,  secondly,  be  made  exclusively  on  the  ground 
that  it  is  according  to  law  and  facts.  Both  of  these  condi- 
tions must  be  complied  with  in  a  legal  decision,  and  the 
pleader  must  have  constant  regard  to  both. 

The  lawyer  has  a  twofold  trust  committed  to  him.  He  is 
the  guardian  of  the  rights  of  individuals  against  all  forms  of 
illegal  violence;  as  a  great  lawyer  has  described  his  profes- 
sion— "  it  counsels  such  as  are  perplexed,  relieves  such  as  are 
circumvented,  prevents  the  ruin  of  the  improvident,  saves  the 
innocent,  supports  the  impotent,  takes  the  prey  out  of  the 
mouth  of  the  oppressor."  At  the  same  time  he  is  the  sup- 
porter and  defender  of  the  inviolability  of  all  the  institutions 
and  ordinances  of  justice. 

Tibet.  23 


266  PRINCIPAL  FORMS  OF  PROSE.  Sec.  161 

Hence  while  securing  to  others  their  rights,  he  does  so  only 
in  a  strictly  legal  way.  In  persuading  the  judge  and  jury  to 
decide  in  his  favor,  he  rejects  all  purely  subjective  grounds,  as 
pity,  sympathy,  advantages  or  disadvantages  accruing, — and 
asks  only  for  a  decision  that  accords  with  the  law  and  the  facts 
as  proved.  The  controlling  idea  of  forensic  eloquence  is  the 
idea  of  justice,  of  the  sacredness  and  majesty  of  law. 

The  forensic  eloquence  of  antiquity  is  not  a  model  for  that 
of  modern  times.  The  laws  and  processes  of  the  two  periods 
are  altogether  different.  In  ancient  times  the  offices  of  judge 
and  executive  were  not  so  carefully  separated  as  at  present; 
the  ancient  courts  had  a  pardoning  power — could  thus  pro- 
nounce sentence  and  suspend  its  execution;  their  pleaders, 
accordingly,  did  not  hesitate  to  appeal  to  the  passions  of  the 
judges,  to  take  advantage  of  their  weaknesses  so  as  to  carry 
their  point.  In  modern  times  this  disregard  of  the  means  em- 
ployed is  unjustifiable,  though  of  too  frequent  occurrence.  In 
such  cases,  the  speech  however  popular  and  effective  it  may 
be  is  not  to  be  regarded  as  a  product  of  forensic  eloquence. 

3.  The  manner  in  which  the  subject  is  given. — The  sub- 
ject is  given  both  to  the  speaker  in  the  Legislature  and  Con- 
gress, and  to  the  pleaders  in  courts  of  law,  but  it  is  given  to 
the  latter  with  much  greater  definiteness.     A  distinct  issue  is 
always  presented ;  i.  e.,  a  question  of  fact  or  law  disputed  be- 
tween the  parties  and  mutually  proposed  by  them  as  the  sub- 
ject  of  decision.     The   matter  of  controversy  is  ascertained 
and  fixed  and  embodied  in  a  distinct  specific  enunciation  with 
the  circumstances  of  time,  place,  person,  so  that  both  parties 
may  know  the  exact  nature  of  the  charges  which  are  to  be 
established  or  confuted. 

4.  The  character  of  the  debate. — The  peculiarity  of  legal 
discussions  is,  that  they  are  debates  in  which  the  opponents 
are  obliged  to  maintain  directly  contradictory  propositions;  the 
point  for  decision  is  affirmed  by  one  side  and  denied  by  the 
other;  no  middle  course  is  allowed.     This  is  not  the  case  in 


Sec.  162  ORATORICAL  PROSE.  267 


proceedings;  a  speaker  is  not  shut  up  to  one  of  two 
alternatives,  —  either  to  advocate  a  resolution  in  its  full  extent, 
and  just  as  it  is  offered,  or  to  oppose  it  unconditionally  and 
without  reserve.  lie  may  approve  in  part,  may  indicate  what 
limitations  and  modifications  he  wishes  to  introduce.  But  no 
such  liberty  is  granted  the  speaker  at  the  bar;  lie  must  accept 
the  issue  presented,  and  prove  or  disprove  it  without  mutila- 
tion, modification,  or  conditions.  He  has  a  sped  lie  charge  to 
deal  with;  he  can  introduce  no  evidence  that  does  not  bear 
upon  it;  he  can  not  fall  short  of  or  go  beyond  it;  nor  intro- 
duce any  thing  foreign  or  immaterial. 

162.  Means  of  accomplishing  its  end.  —  The  design  of  a 
legal  debate  is  to  settle  a  disputed  claim  between  two  liti- 
gants, or  to  establish  the  guilt  or  innocence  of  an  accused 
person.  To  achieve  their  end  the  pleaders  have  at  their  dis- 
posal all  the  means  of  conviction  and  persuasion,  so  far  as 
they  can  be  employed  without  violating  duty. 

The  question  to  be  decided  is  a  mixed  one  involving  both 
points  of  law7  and  matters  of  fact;  but  the  debate  is  often  con- 
fined to  but  one  of  these  aspects;  —  in  other  words,  the  ques- 
tion raised  between  the  parties  may  be  one  of  law,  or  one  of 
facts.  The  defendant  may  admit  the  fact  but  deny  its  suffi- 
ciency in  point  of  law  to  maintain  the  action  as  it  has  been 
brought.  The  issue  tendered  is  then  one  of  law7.  He  may 
deny  the  fact  in  the  manner  and  form  in  which  it  is  alleged, 
and  throw  upon  the  opposite  side  the  burden  of  proof.  The 
question  debated  will  then  be,  Are  the  facts  true?  Finally, 
he  may  admit  the  fact,  but  bring  forward  other  facts  and  cir- 
cumstances which  change  its  legal  character,  or  show  that  it 
was  justifiable.  The  question  is^  here  mixed:  Are  the  facts 
alleged  true  f  and,  How7  do  they  affect  the  legal  character  of 
the  action  '?  3u)r  example,  Does  the  fact  that  a  person  accused 
of  murder  was  drunk  at  the  time  he  committed  the  deed,  or 
that  he  had  been  grievously  injured,  change  the  nature  of  the 
offense  ? 

When  the  question  is  a  purely  legal  one,  the  discourse  is 


2o8  PRINCIPAL  FOEMS  OF  PEOSE.  Sec.  162 

almost  entirely  didactic.  Authorities  are  accumulated  which 
are  to  be  compared  and  interpreted;  verbal  discussions  and 
technicalities  occupy  an  important  place.  The  requisites  are  a 
clear  apprehension  of  the  essential  points  in  the  authorities 
adduced,  and  a  conclusive  identification  of  the  principles  laid 
down  in  them  with  those  of  the  case  on  trial.  Such  discus- 
sions are  designed  for  the  judges  only,  and,  though  to  a  lawyer 
often  the  most  interesting  heard  in  a  court,  are  unintelligible 
to  unprofessional  hearers. 

In  dealing  with  questions  of  fact,  both  the  prosecutor  and 
defendant  rely  upon  the  evidence  that  has  been  submitted. 
The  question  is  not  simply,  Is  the  accused  guilty?  but,  Is 
his  guilt  established  beyond  a  reasonable  doubt  by  the  evi- 
dence that  has  been  given  in  the  court?  The  validity  of  the 
testimony  is  examined;  the  character  of  witnesses  assailed  or 
defended;  discrepancies  are  pointed  out;  inconsistencies  recon- 
ciled; inferences  drawn  from  the  facts  established;  and  the 
whole  so  combined  as  to  confirm  the  hypothesis  of  the 
pleader. 

One  of  the  most  characteristic  marks  of  a  great  lawyer  is 
his  quick,  unerring  perception,  and  firm  grasp  of  the  strong 
points  of  a  case.  There  are  in  every  case  certain  cardinal 
points  on  which  its  just  decision  hinges.  By  making  these 
prominent  and  fixing  the  attention  of  the  hearers  upon  them, 
and  applying  the  law  and  evidence  to  them,  he  produces  a  con- 
viction which  can  not  be  disturbed  by  the  sophistry  and  eva- 
sions of  his  opponents. 

Another  important  qualification  of  a  forensic  orator  is  skill 
in  narrating  with  clearness,  conciseness,  and  propriety.  It  is 
not  the  advocate's  design  merely  to  construct  a  narrative  that 
shall  be  probable,  but  one  that  has  the  force  of  an  argument. 
While  reciting  only  what  is  true,  he  endeavors  to  exhibit  the 
facts  in  a  light  most  favorable  to  his  cause;  softening  what 
makes  against  him,  and  presenting  in  vivid  colors  what  is  to 
his  advantage.  Narration  enters  largely  into  speeches  at  the 
bar,  sometimes  constituting  the  entire  speech. 

It  is  sometimes  said  that  persuasion  ought  not  to  have  a 


Sec,  164  ORATORICAL  PKOSE.  269 

place  in  forensic  oratory.  This  is  a  mistake.  The  attempt  to 
interest  the  judges  and  jury  and  move  their  wills  is  justifiable, 
provided  the  interest  awakened  and  the  feelings  addressed  are 
of  the  right  kind.  It  has  been  already  shown  that  no  decision 
should  ever  be  sought  except  one  given  solely  because  it  is 
according  to  law  and  truth.  It  would  be  immoral  to  endeavor 
to  gain  a  favorable  decision  by  addressing  the  compassion, 
prejudices,  vanity,  or  self-love  of  the  judges  and  jury;  but  it  is 
the  advocate's  duty  to  use  all  means  to  excite  and  keep  alive 
their  love  of  truth  and  sense  of  justice.  It  is  to  these  elevated 
passions  the  speaker  in  courts  of  law  appeals;  these  are  the 
great  means  of  persuasion  which  he  is  not  only  at  liberty  but 
is  called  upon  to  employ. 

163.  Style. — The  style  of  the  speeches  varies  with  the  nat- 
ure  and  importance   of  the  question  and  with  the  tribunal. 
On  ordinary  questions  it  is  plain;  on  questions  involving  great 
interests  it  may  be  grand  and  sublime.     The  style  of  an  ad- 
dress directed  to  the  judge  is  not  the  same  as  that  of  an  address 
to  the  jury. 

The  advocate  who  enters  into  the  merits  of  his  case  and 
thoroughly  understands  it,  who  is  solicitous  for  the  interests  of 
his  client,  who  has  a  becoming  feeling  of  responsibility,  who  is 
animated  by  a  sincere  desire  to  discover  truth,  to  punish  crime 
and  protect  the  innocent,  will  naturally  express  himself  with 
dignity  and  force.  A  style  that  is  the  adequate  expression 
of  such  a  state  of  mind  will  be  characterized  by  lucidity, 
method,  gravity,  earnestness,  and  warmth  free  from  passion- 
ateness. 

Speeches  at  the  bar  are  necessarily  more  entirely  extempo- 
raneous than  those  made  before  deliberative  bodies.  This  is 
the  occasion  of  many  great  faults,  of  which  the  most  frequent 
are  looseness,  incoherence,  and  confusion;  failing  to  put  for- 
ward in  a  striking  manner  the  strong  points ;  tedious  diffuse- 
ness;  violent  declamation. 

164.  Sacred  Oratory. — The  object  of  sacred  oratory  is  to 


270  PRINCIPAL  FORMS  OF  PROSE.  Sec.  164 

awaken  and  cultivate  the  religious  affections.     It  differs  from 
both  forms  of  secular  eloquence  in  several  particulars. 

1.  Both  political  and  forensic  eloquence  deal  with  local  and 
temporary  relations,  with  the  interests  of  a  visible  and  earthly 
society.     Sacred  oratory  regards  man  as  an  immortal  and  ac- 
countable  being,  related  to  a  higher  and  invisible   order  of 
things,  whose   destiny  is   accomplished  in  a  future   life.     It 
passes  by  all  that  is  accidental  and  superficial,  and  views  only 
those  features  that  are  common  to  all  ;  it  thus  addresses  the 
primary,  universal,  and  permanent  principles  of  human  nature. 

2.  The  results  of  secular  eloquence  are  external,  visible;  a 
vote  is  to  be  taken,  a  verdict  rendered, — beyond  this  it  does 
not  look;  when  it  has  gained  these  it  has  achieved  its  end. 
The  results  of  sacred  oratory  are  internal  and  permanent.     It 
seeks  to  change  the  disposition  and  character,  to  gain  the  mas- 
tery of  the  whole  man,  and  give  an  abiding  direction  to  his 
affections  and  will.     The  principles  which  it  addresses  are  the 
most  difficult  to  reach,  and  from  their  elevated  character  are 
the  most  delicate  of  our  nature,  whose  rightful  supremacy  it  is 
hard  to  maintain  against  the  encroachments  of  lower  and  vio- 
lent passions. 

3.  The  subjects  of  sacred  eloquence  surpass  all  others  in 
their  importance  and  sublimity ;  no  higher  themes  can  employ 
human  thought,  they  have  an  attraction  for  all  who  are  capa- 
ble of  reflection.     The  range  of  subjects  is  a  wide  one.     Re- 
ligion is  not  a  separate,  coordinate  interest,  it  embraces  all 
others.     There  is  nothing  in  human  life  that  can  not  be  con- 
templated and  estimated  from  a  religious  point  of  view ;  and 
accordingly  all   acts,  fashions,  customs,  institutions    can   be 
brought  within  the  range  of  sacred  oratory. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  treatment  of  these  subjects  is  attended 
with  some  peculiar  difficulties.  They  are  of  an  abstract  nature. 
The  preacher  does  not  discuss  concrete  facts,  or  questions  con- 
fined to  actual  existing  institutions  or  living,  present  persons; 
but  general  religious  and  moral  truths.  These  are  harder 
to  understand,  and  make  a  feebler  impression  upon  the  imag- 
ination and  sensibilities,  than  those  connected  with  persons  or 


Sec.  164  ORATORICAL  PROSE.  271 

social  and  political  organizations.  It  is  easier  to  excite  admi- 
ration for  an  individual  than  for  an  abstract  virtue;  to  kindle 
detestation  of  a  criminal  than  of  a  vice. 

Further,  this  class  of  subjects  requires  self-reflection.  The 
hearer  must  fix  his  attention  upon  his  own  moral  condition, — . 
his  motives,  prevailing  affections,  and  weaknesses;  Avliich  re- 
quires a  more  vigorous  effort  than  is  called  for  in  considering 
objects  of  external  perception.  Still  further,  the  subjects  have 
lost  much  of  their  clearness,  force,  and  attractiveness  by  the 
hearers'  familiarity  with  them. 

4.  The  secular  orator  has   greatly  the   advantage  of  the 
preacher  in  the  occasion  of  his  speaking.     The  occasion  is  a 
special  one,  and  the  minds  of  the  audience  have  been  prepared 
for  it.     The  subject  is  known,  has  been  discussed  in  private 
and  public  gatherings,  passions  have  been  enlisted — and  the 
hearers  are  eager  to  listen  to  what  the  speaker  has  to  say. 
But  the  theme  of  the  preacher's  discourse  is  not  known  before- 
hand; he  does  not  meet  an  audience  whose  curiosity  and  feel- 
ings are  excited  on  a  particular  subject.     On  the  contrary,  the 
minds  of  most  are  preoccupied  with  matters  having  no  refer- 
ence to  the  occasion,  and  often  the  hardest  task  of  the  preacher 
is  to  overcome  the  indifference  and  inertia  of  the  hearers. 
This  difficulty  is  increased  by  the  fact  that  the  same  speaker 
appears  before  the  same  audience  at  short  intervals. 

Another  advantage  of  the  secular  orator  is  that  he  has  an 
opponent.  The  contest  between  the  adversaries  is  an  addi- 
tional means  of  awakening  and  preserving  the  attention  of  the 
audience,  at  the  same  time  it  calls  forth  into  more  vigorous 
energy  the  powers  of  the  speakers.  Some  of  the  noblest 
products  of  political  oratory  have  originated  in  the  heat  of 
debate. 

5.  The  preacher  addresses  a  more  promiscuous  audience  than 
either  the  political  speaker  or  the  pleader.     It  comprises  per- 
sons of  both  sexes,  of  different  ages,  social  position,  occupation, 
intellectual  and  moral  character;  and  his  discourse  must  be 
adapted  to  the  existing  condition  and  wants  of  all,  without 
offending  the  weaknesses  and  prejudices  of  any. 


272  PRINCIPAL  FORMS  OF  PROSE.  Sec.  164 

From  what  has  been  said,  it  is  apparent  that  while  sacred 
eloquence  surpasses  all  other  forms  of  eloquence  in  the  grand- 
eur of  its  themes  and  the  greatness  of  the  ends  which  it  seeks 
to  realize,  it  likewise  presents  greater  difficulties  than  any 
other.  Success  in  it  justly  deserves  to  be  regarded  as  among 
the  highest  achievements  in  oratory. 

It  follows,  further,  that  those  misapprehend  entirely  the  pe- 
culiar nature  and  aim  of  religious  eloquence  who  try  it  by  the 
laws  of  secular,  and  who  take  the  masterpieces  of  parliament- 
ary, popular,  and  forensic  oratory  as  models  for  the  sermon. 
In  common  with  the  other  forms  of  discourse,  the  sermon  pos- 
sesses the  essential  requisites  of  eloquence,  but  it  has  differ- 
ences which  separate  it  from  them  as  a  distinct  species. 

165.  Instruction  an  essential  requisite. — Instruction  has 
a  more  conspicuous  place  in  religious  than  in  the  other  kinds 
of  eloquence.  The  preacher  is  both  orator  and  teacher.  He 
has  as  the  basis  of  his  discourses  the  sacred  Scripture,  which 
it  is  his  duty  to  explain  and  apply,  guiding  the  ignorant  and 
unbelieving  to  the  knowledge  of  its  truths,  confirming  the  faith 
of  believers,  and  imparting  to  all  that  clear,  firm  conviction 
which  is  the  foundation  of  Christian  virtue.  But  the  ultimate 
end  of  the  announcement  of  the  truth  is  not  instruction  but 
edification.  A  sermon  is  not  a  lecture  or  disquisition;  the 
truth  is  proclaimed  not  that  the  hearers  may  merely  know  it, 
but  that  they  may  also  do  it :  it  is  intended  not  to  rest  in  the 
understanding,  but  to  reach  the  conscience  and  affections,  and 
control  the  life. 

Two  kinds  of  religious  discourse  are  wanting  in  this  essential 
requisite  of  pulpit  eloquence. 

1st.  What  are  called  dogmatic  sermons.  These  are  discus- 
sions of  theological  questions,  with  no  attempt  to  apply  them 
to  the  actual  condition  and  wants  of  the  hearers.  An  entire 
system  of  dogmatic  and  polemic  theology  may  be  given  in  this 
shape;  but  the  discourses  would  no  more  be  sermons  than 
philosophical  disquisitions  given  in  an  epistolary  form  would 
be  genuine  letters. 


Sec.  166  ORATORICAL  PROSE.  273 

2d.  The  second  class  comprises  those  discourses  which  are 
but  the  utterances  of  the  emotions  of  the  individual.  They 
contain  no  direct  address  to  the  understanding  and  will,  they 
discard  the  form  of  a  conversation  and  struggle  which  elo- 
quence naturally  assumes;  the  speaker  pours  forth  his  feelings 
without  reference  to  the  presence  of  others,  and  his  discourse 
is  a  meditation,  a  monologue. 

3hich  of  the  popular  preaching  of  the  day  is  of  this  kind. 
It  is  declared  by  James  Martineau,  who  has  given  the  most 
perfect  specimens  of  this  kind  of  preaching,  to  be  the  appro- 
priate form  of  the  genuine  sermon.  He  says:  "In  virtue  of 
the  close  affinity,  perhaps  ultimate  identity,  of  religion  and 
poetry,  preaching  is  essentially  a  lyric  expression  of  the  soul, 
an  utterance  of  meditation  in  sorrow,  hope,  love,  and  joy,  from 
a  representative  of  the  human  heart  in  its  divine  relations. 
In  proportion  as  we  quit  this  view  and  prominently  introduce 
the  idea  of  a  preceptive  and  monitory  function,  we  retreat  from 
the  true  prophetic  interpretation  of  the  office  back  into  the  old 
sacerdotal;  or  (what  perhaps  is  not  so  different  a  distinction 
as  it  may  appear)  from  the  properly  religious  to  the  simply 
moral." 

No  one  can  be  insensible  to  the  rare  beauty  of  some  sermons 
of  this  meditative,  poetical  cast,  or  dispute  their  high  rank  as 
literary  productions.  But  those  only  are  capable  of  such  com- 
positions in  whom  are  united  a  genuine  poetical  nature  and  a 
profound  religious  experience.  When  these  qualities  are  want- 
ing we  have  eifusions  of  vague,  shallow  sentiment  embodied 
in  what  is  called  poetic  prose. 

The  theory  which  removes  the  sermon  from  oratory  and 
identifies  it  with  poetry  is  untenable;  a  sermon  is  neither  a 
theological  lecture  nor  a  poem.  As  religion  is  not  knowledge 
alone  nor  action  alone,  but  knowledge  leading  to  action  and 
action  proceeding  from  knowledge,  so  that  only  can  be  re- 
garded as  preaching  which  both  enlightens  the  intellect  and 
moves  the  affections  and  will. 

166.  Religious  Exhortation. — Some  of  the  worst  faults  of 


274  PRINCIPAL  FORMS  OF  PROSE.  Sec,  166 

pulpit  eloquence  are  in  the  style  of  its  exhortation.  We  fre- 
quently hear  violent  convulsive  appeals  to  the  passions,  which 
suit  neither  the  themes  discussed  nor  the  emotions  to  be  called 
forth.  Whatever  disturbs  the  calm  exercise  of  the  reason  is 
destructive  of  the  aims  of  preaching. 

Extreme  caution  is  required  as  to  the  nature  of  the  motives 
employed.  Eloquence,  in  all  its  forms,  rejects  whatever  is  in- 
consistent with  the  moral  dignity  of  man  j  the  sacred  orator 
^especially  is  called  upon  to  abstain  from  appeals  to  low.  seliish, 
partisan,  and  malicious  feelings,  and  to  use  only  such  as  are 
purely  religious. 

Equally  unworthy  is  that  false  pathetic,  in  which  so  many 
place  the  highest  triumphs  of  sacred  eloquence,  but  which,  on 
the  contrary,  is  one  of  its  worst  corruptions.  Nothing  is  easier 
than  to  excite  to  tears,  and  nothing  more  useless  for  moral 
purposes.  Effeminate  sensibility  is  often,  if  not  always,  con- 
nected with  hardness  of  heart,  and  is  compatible  with  the 
lowest  forms  of  moral  corruption.  The  preacher  who  under- 
stands his  mission  aims  to  reach  the  conscience.  Whatever 
his  theme,  whatever  special  applications  to  circumstances  he 
may  make,  he  can  produce  a  powerful  and  abiding  impression 
only  by  first  touching  the  moral  sense. 

167.  Familiarity. — Sacred  oratory  is  the  most  popular  kind 
of  discourse ;  its  themes  are  of  universal  interest ;  it  addresses 
men  as  members  of  one  family, — immortal  and  accountable, 
guilty  and  yet  capable  of  perfection;  the  preacher  is  also  pas- 
tor, and  between  him  and  his  hearers  a  friendship  exists, 
which  can  rarely  be  found  between  other  speakers  and  their 
audiences.  The  style  appropriate  to  such  a  discourse  is  free 
from  ceremony,  reserve,  and  arrogance:  and  has  the  ease,  free- 
dom, directness,  and  cordiality  of  friendly  intercourse.  It  re- 
jects a  philosophic  diction  composed  of  abstract,  technical 
terms  and  prefers  simple,  homely,  and  concrete  words.  It  dis- 
cards also  an  elaborate  structure  of  sentences,  and  a  stiff, 
formal  division  of  the  discourse.  Familiarity  must  be  con- 
trolled by  the  nature  of  the  work  in  which  the  preacher  is 


Sec.  168  ORATORICAL  PROSE.  275 

engaged,  and  the  circumstances  attending  the  delivery  of  his 
sermon ;  it  is  not  to  degenerate  into  unbecoming  prattle  and 


168.  Religious  Diction. — The  familiarity  just  described 
does  not  exclude  what  has  been  called  the  scriptural  tone  of 
the  discourse.  We  expect  the  style  of  the  preacher  to  be 
tinged  with  the  style  of  the  Book  which  is  the  basis  of  his 
preaching. 

This  is  the  more  natural  in  English,  as  our  language  is  in 
possession  of  a  well-defined,  rich  religious  dialect,  which  is  not 
of  recent  origin,  but  dates  back  to  the  days  of  Wycliffe.  Its 
foundations  were  laid  by  that  reformer;  it  was  extended  and 
improved  by  succeeding  translators  of  the  Scripture ;  was  still 
further  modified  and  enriched  in  many  religious  controversies, 
and  has  been  made  familiar  to  the  mass  by  the  English  Bible. 
It  is  distinguished  both  from  the  scientific  and  literary  diction, 
and  from  the  colloquial  dialect.  It  is  idiomatic,  familiar  with- 
out vulgarity,  and  somewhat  archaic  in  words  and  forms. 

The  attempt  to  banish  this  diction  from  sacred  oratory  and 
to  substitute  for  it  the  current  language  of  contemporary  liter- 
ature can  not  be  defended  even  on  the  score  of  literary  taste. 
It  is  offensive  only  when  used  in  excess ;  when  misapplied ; 
when  instead  of  being  interfused  into  the  style  it  has  the  ap- 
pearance of  being  laid  on  it,  and  is  thus  artificial,  incongruous. 
When  judiciously  and  naturally  used,  it  gives  to  the  discourse 
that  mingled  greatness  and  familiarity,  "that  familiarity  so 
full  of  greatness,  which,'7  as  Yinet  says,  "  should  be  and  al- 
ways has  been  the  inimitable  signet  of  preaching." 

REMARK. — The  history  of  the  English  sacred  dialect  is  given  by 
Marsh  in  one  of  the  most  valuable  of  his  lectures  on  the  English  lan- 
gu.'iire.  The  whole  lecture  deserves  careful  study.  A  summary  state- 
ment of  the  results  he  reaches  is  given  in  the  following  short  paragraph: 
"The  general  result  of  a  comparison  between  the  diction  of  the  English 
liiole  and  that  of  the  secular  literature  of  England  is,  that  we  have  had, 
from  the  very  dawn  of  our  literature,  a  sacred  and  a  profane  dialect,  the 
former  eminently  native,  idiomatic,  vernacular,  and  permanent,  the  latter 


276  PKINCIPAL  FORMS  OF  PKOSE.  Sec.  168 

composite,  heterogeneous,  irregular,  and  fluctuating;  the  one  pure, 
natural,  and  expressive,  the  other  mixed,  and  comparatively  distorted  and 
conventional." 


This  sacred  dialect  is  to  be  distinguished  from  the  technical 
theological  nomenclature ;  which  contains  many  terms  drawn 
from  scholastic  philosophy,  and  which,  though  indispensable  in 
science,  are  not  appropriate  in  popular  discourse. 

Not  all  biblical  expressions  are  to  be  regarded  as  a  part  of 
this  dialect,  and  as  admissible  in  a  sermon.  Many  of  them 
do  not  accord  with  the  present  modes  of  thought  and  use  of 
language;  as,  for  example,  obsolete  words,  the  number  of 
which  is  not  large ;  technical  terms  and  expressions  denoting 
institutions  and  customs  of  a  former  period,  which  are  not  now 
generally  understood;  and  other  obscure,  metaphorical  expres- 
sions. 

169.  Two   Kinds  of  Religious   Oratorical  Discourse. — 

There  are  two  kinds  of  religious  oratorical  discourse : 
1st.  The  sermon,  or  synthetic  discourse. 
2d.  The  homily,  or  analytic  discourse. 

The  Sermon. — In  the  sermon,  a  text  is  first  chosen,  from 
which  a  single,  distinct  proposition  is  deduced,  forming  the 
theme.  This  is  then  developed  according  to  the  general  laws 
of  discourse.  The  parts  of  a  sermon  are  in  the  main  those 
of  the  regular,  formal  discourse: — Introduction  or  exordium, 
announcement  of  the  theme,  and  (sometimes)  of  the  division, 
the  body  of  the  discourse  (made  up  of  exposition,  argument, 
and  exhortation),  and  the  conclusion  or  peroration. 

The  Homily. — The  homily  differs  from  the  sermon,  in  hav- 
ing for  its  text  a  larger  portion  of  Scripture,  as  a  whole  para- 
graph, narrative,  a  parable,  a  miracle;  in  developing  the  text 
itself  instead  of  drawing  a  single,  distinct  proposition  from  it; 
and  in  following  the  order  of  topics  as  they  are  presented  in 
the  text:  hence  it  is  more  purely  expository  than  the  sermon; 


Sec.  169  ORATORICAL  PROSE.  277 

it  is  properly  a  continuous  explication  and  application  of  a 
somewhat  extended  portion  of  Scripture. 

In  favor  of  this  form  of  discourse  it  may  be  urged:  That  it 
is  the  primitive  mode  of  preaching,  having  been  employed 
both  by  the  earliest  Christian  preachers  and  by  the  lleformers: 
that  it  accords  best  with  the  great  end  of  preaching,  the  com- 
munication and  application  of  scriptural  truth :  that  it  enables 
the  preacher  to  present  a  great  variety  of  truths  in  a  single 
discourse,  and  affords  an  opportunity  to  apply  them  to  the 
actual  condition  of  his  hearers,  in  a  more  intelligible  and  for- 
cible manner  than  in  the  sermon,  and  is  thus  better  adapted  to 
a  promiscuous  assembly. 

It  is  justly  entitled  to  the  praise  of  being  the  best  and  high- 
est style  of  preaching.  It  is  also  the  most  difficult. 

The  principal  difficulty  is  in  preserving  unity,  owing  to  the 
great  number  of  details  that  are  introduced.  The  main  idea 
must  be  separated  from  the  subordinate  ones,  and  each  part 
must  be  developed  no  further  than  its  relation  to  the  leading 
thought  requires.  When  the  proportion  of  the  several  parts 
is  neglected,  the  discourse  becomes  confused,  fitted  neither  to 
instruct  nor  to  affect. 

Another  difficulty  arising  from  the  number  of  thoughts  which 
are  brought  forward  is,  that  it  is  impossible  to  dwell  long  upon 
any  of  them;  it  is  often  necessary  to  dismiss  in  a  few  para- 
graphs topics  that  require  for  their  satisfactory  illustration  an 
entire  discourse;  hence  it  is  almost  inevitable  that  some  points 
will  not  be  understood  or  their  importance  appreciated.  Further, 
there  is  danger  of  confusing  the  minds  of  the  auditors  by  pre- 
senting in  quick  succession  too  great  a  variety  of  topics. 

This  method  of  preaching  is  usually  called  expository  preach- 
ing. The  exposition  is  however  of  a  different  kind  from  that 
given  in  critical  commentaries.  The  preacher  should  not  so 
far  mistake  the  nature  of  his  task  as  to  indulge  in  discussing 
points  of  etymology,  syntax,  and  archaeology.  As  in  the  syn- 
thetic discourse  the  preacher  is  too  often  lost  in  the  theologian, 
so  in  expository  preaching  he  is  not  seldom  lost  in  the  gram- 
marian and  exegete. 


278  PRINCIPAL  FORMS  OF  PROSE.  Sec.  170 

170.  Recapitulation. — The   object  of  all  eloquence  is   to 
move  the  will.     The  act  to  which  the  will  is  moved  is  either 
an   external  or  an  internal  one.     Accordingly,   eloquence  is 
divided  with  respect  to  the  results  it  produces  into : — 

1.  Secular  eloquence,  the  results  of  which  are  immediate, 
external,  and  visible. 

2.  Sacred  eloqence,  the  results  of  which  are  internal  and 
permanent. 

Again,  in  every  address  to  the  will  we  find  an  ethical  idea 
predominant,  as  that  to  which  the  orator  has  special  reference, 
and  to  which  all  the  other  ideas  are  subordinate.  With  re- 
spect to  its  governing  idea,  eloquence  is  divided  into: — 

1.  Political  eloquence,  in  which  the  idea  of  the  public  good  is 
predominant. 

2.  Forensic  eloquence,  in  which  the  idea  of  justice,  or  civil 
law,  is  predominant. 

3.  Sacred  eloquence,  in  which  the  idea  of  holiness  or  Chris- 
tian virtue  is  predominant. 

171.  Miscellaneous  Addresses. — There  are  many  kinds  of 
public  discourse  which  can  not,  with  propriety,  be  referred  to 
any  of  the  foregoing  divisions,  and,  at  the  same  time,  can  not 
be  united  into  any  one  well-defined  class.     A  few  of  the  prin- 
cipal may  be  mentioned  without  dwelling  on  them. 

1.  The  first  class,  of  which  Webster's  Bunker  Hill  Monu- 
ment Oration  and  Eulogy  upon  Adams  and  Jefferson,  and 
Everett's  Eulogy  upon  Washington  are  examples,  may  be 
styled  demonstrative  political  addresses.  They  are  delivered 
on  national  anniversaries  and  special  public  occasions;  their 
subjects,  though  relating  to  public  affairs,  are  not,  -as  those  of 
political  oratory,  questions  of  measures  to  be  adopted,  but  are 
usually  events  of  national  history,  or  the  life  and  character  of 
a  distinguished  public  man.  They  differ  from  oratory  proper 
in  not  being  intended  to  persuade  to  action  5  their  proper  aim 
is  to  stimulate  and  elevate  public  spirit,  to  cultivate  rational 
patriotism.  The  style  of  such  discourses  is  different  from 
that  of  eloquence;  it  is  not  of  that  practical,  agonistic  char- 


Sec.  172  ORATORICAL  PROSE.  1*79 

acter  which  distinguishes  the  genuine  oratorical  style.  Elab- 
orate stateliness  and  gorgeousness  are  here  appropriate  and 
looked  for. 

1*.  Literary  and  scientific  addesses.  Lectures  delivered  in 
the  class-room  are  not  here  meant ;  their  purpose  being  to  give 
a  connected  exposition  of  a  science,  they  belong  to  didactic 
prose.  But  there  are  frequent  occasions,  such  as  the  opening 
of  new  institutions,  the  inauguration  of  officers,  conferring  de- 
grees, society  anniversaries,  etc.,  when  it  is  customary  to  have 
public  addresses  delivered.  One  of  the  most  perfect  models 
of  this  class  is  the  discourse  of  Edward  Everett  at  the  inaugu- 
ration of  Dudley  Observatory. 

There  is  not  enough  regard  paid  to  the  appropriateness  of 
the  subjects  selected  for  such  occasions.  As  the  discourses  are 
designed  to  awaken  literary  or  scientific  interest,  their  subjects 
should  be  drawn  from  literature  or  science,  and  be  both  the- 
oretical and  popular.  The  style  varies  according  as  the  chief 
purpose  is  to  give  a  clear  insight  into  the  subject  or  to  awaken 
active  sympathy  with  it. 

3.  Public  lectures.  This  class  includes  discourses  differing 
widely  in  their  matter  and  aim.  Their  design  may  be  to  in- 
struct, entertain,  or  persuade;  they  range  accordingly  from 
the  didactic  to  the  oratorical.  Their  subjects  are  of  every 
description,  scientific,  historical,  philosophical,  literary,  and 
political. 

172.  Conclusion. — The  principles  discussed  in  this  work 
apply  to  literary  prose  exclusively.  The  term  prose  has  been 
employed  in  a  narrower  sense  than  is  usually  given  to  it,  and 
several  kinds  of  discourse  that  are  generally  reckoned  as  be- 
longing to  it  have  not  been  mentioned.  Some  literary  pro- 
ductions, which  are  not  designed  to  inform,  instruct,  convince, 
or  persuade,  as  not  included  in  the  definition  of  prose,  and 
all  those  productions  which  are  not  strictly  literary  have  been 
passed  over. 

To  the  former  belong,  first,  novels,  romances,  and  all  pro- 
ductions included  under  the  head  of  imaginative  or  romantic 


280  PRINCIPAL  FORMS  OF  PROSE. 

prose.  In  their  aim  these  are  identical  with  poetry,  and  are 
governed  l>y  the  laws  of  epic  poetry.  Secondly,  that  species 
of  composition  which  De  Quincey  has  designated  as  rhetorical 
prose.  He  distinguishes  between  rhetoric  and  eloquence,  ex- 
cluding from  the  former  both  conviction  and  persuasion,  and 
making  it  but  "  the  art  of  aggrandizing  and  bringing  out  into 
strong  relief,  by  means  of  various  and  striking  thoughts,  some 
aspect  of  truth  which  of  itself  is  supported  by  no  spontaneous 
feeling,  and  therefore  rests  upon  artificial  aids."  According 
to  this  view  it  is  distinguished  from  eloquence  in  not  being  the 
expression  of  strong  passion,  of  a  struggle ;  in  shunning  prac- 
tical questions  and  cases  from  real  life ;  in  its  unfitness  for  the 
details  and  strife  of  business;  in  dwelling  upon,  expanding, 
elaborating,  and  adorning  the  thoughts,  instead  of  hurrying 
to  a  definite  end. 

It  is  distinguished  from  prose  in  general  in  having  no  out- 
ward end.  If  it  is  to  be  regarded  as  a  distinct  form  of  dis- 
course, it  should  be  assigned  to  imaginative  literature  rather 
than  to  prose.  At  least,  it  is  the  transition  from  prose  to 
poetry. 

The  other  kinds  of  discourse  that  have  been  omitted  because 
they  do  not  strictly  belong  to  literature,  constitute  what  is 
called  business  prose.  This  comprises  all  writings  employed 
in  transacting  business. 

Business  transactions  are  either  between  individuals,  or  such 
as  relate  to  affairs  of  state,  in  which  the  state  acts  through 
its  regular  organs.  Business  prose  is  accordingly  divided  into 
private,  including  all  writings  expressive  of  the  various  rela- 
tions of  individuals  to  each  other,  as  contracts,  receipts,  com- 
mercial letters,  etc.,  etc.;  and  official,  comprising  all  kinds  of 
public  documents  from  the  several  departments  of  the  govern- 
ment, such  as  treaties,  messages,  reports. 

It  is  impossible  to  give,  in  a  single  treatise,  the  rules  for 
these  various  productions.  Each  has  its  own  special  laws, 
technicalities,  and  conventional  forms,  which  can  be  satisfac- 
torily  taught  only  in  a  course  of  professional  training. 


EXERCISES 


TO  ACCOMPANY  HEPBURN'S   RHETORIC. 


PART  II.— CHAPTER  II. 

THE  CHOICE  OF  WORDS. 

44.  National  Use. — Point  out  in  what  manner  the  italicized 
words  in  the  following  sentences  have  been  NATURALIZED: 

1.  The  boys  have  access  to  my  room  at  any  time. 

2.  That  man's  aspect  is  forbidding. 

3.  Venice  at  one  time  controlled  the  commerce  of  the 
Mediterranean  Sea. 

4.  The  terms  of  that  contract  are  contrary  to  law. 

5.  Then  they  laid  the  dead  body  in  the  sepulcher. 

6.  The  words  balm  and  balsam  have  the  same  origin. 

7.  You  may  be  sure  that  caitiff  is  an  unwilling  captive. 

8.  Mary  Jones  is  coy  because  she  is  so  quiet. 

9.  That  the  man  performed  the  feat  is  a  fact. 

10.  It  then  became  the  fashion  to  be  connected  with  some 
faction. 

11.  There  is  a  fragile  girl  standing  upon  a  frail  bridge. 

12.  He  was  given  a  light  penance  because,  his  penitence 
was  so  sincere. 

13.  Professor  Wise  gives  valuable  lessons  in  the  form  of 
lectures. 

14.  In  order  to  feel  sure  you  must  secure  all  the  papers. 

15.  Bishop  Mcllvaine  belonged  to  the  Episcopal  church. 
13,  This  book  has  too  many  appendixes. 

17.  Those  automatons  need  repairing. 

(i) 


2  EXERCISES. 

18.  All  of  those  Roman  bandits  were  killed. 

19.  Raphael's  cherubs  are  seen  in  every  shop  window. 

20.  I  prefer  the  word  memorandums  to  memoranda. 

21.  Drs.  Wise  and  Lilienthal  are  Jewish  rabbis. 

22.  Similes  have  a  tendency  to  weaken  poetical  thoughts. 

23.  Do  not  play  the  dunce  any  longer. 

24.  "  It  out-herods  Herod :  pray  you  avoid  it." 

25.  I  just  saw  one  small  boy  hectoring  another. 

26.  It  is  very  imprudent  to  call  that  man  a  miserable  mis- 
creant. 

27.  Stop  your  rodomontade;  cease  your  ribald  jests. 

28.  No  man  of  principle  will  pander  to  such  a  custom. 

29.  Who  ever  heard  of  such  a  quixotic  scheme. 

Show  why  the  following  italicized  naturalized  words  are 
incorretly  used : 

30.  His  avocation  is  that  of  a  minister. 

31.  I  did  not  anticipate  a  visit  from  you  until  to-morrow. 

32.  You  can  send  the  balance  of  the  goods  to  my  house. 

33.  The  burglar  had  a  couple  of  pistols  in  his  pockets. 

34.  It  is  not  fair  to  predicate  an  opinion  upon  such  testi- 
mony. 

35.  The  accident  transpired  early  this  morning  to  the  in- 
coming train. 

Point  out  the  NECESSARY  FOREIGN  WORDS  in  the  following 
sentences,  and  show  ivhy  they  are  necessary : 

1.  General  Grant  at  once  sent  an  aid-de-camp  to  General 
Wallace. 

2.  The  beau  and  belle  of  the  evening  were  brother  and 
sister. 

3.  The  tired  soldiers  went  into  bivouac  in  the  open  fields. 

4.  That  little  blonde  gentleman  is  quite  brusque  in  his 
manners. 

5.  The  elite  of  the  city  were  present  at  her  debut,  anl  she 
received  several  encores. 


EXERCISES.  3 

6.  The  debris  of  the  ruined  depot  were  speedily  removed. 

7.  Miss  llustic's  naivete  in  ignoring  nearly  all  forms  of 
etiquette  was  really  charming. 

8.  An  omelet  nicely   cooked   is   an  excellent    dish    for 
breakfast. 

9.  You  are  more  interested  than  your  nonchalance  would 
lead  us  to  believe. 

10.  I  met  your  young  protege  at  the  soiree. 

11.  Miss  Bonanza's  trousseau  was  not  only  expensive  but 
also  beautiful. 

12.  This  is  a  most  dangerous  crisis. 

13.  The  focus   of  the   spectacles  you   wear  is   thirty-six 
inches. 

14.  The  genera  of  plants  are  not  difficult  to  learn. 

15.  Your  hypothesis  can  never  be  developed  into  a  theory. 

16.  The  larva  stage  of  growth  is  the  first  of  an  insect's 
life. 

17.  Congress  then  adjourned  sine  die. 

Point  out  the  USELESS  FOREIGN  WORDS  in  the /allotting  sen- 
tences, and  show  why  they  are  useless. 

1.  That  essay  of  yours  is  a  delightful  brochure. 

2.  While  seated  in  the  atelier  the  whole  party  engaged 
in  delightful  badinage. 

3.  At  our  simple  dejeuner  our  hostess  indulged  much  in 
harmless  persiflage. 

4.  The  ensemble  of  the  meeting  was  marred  by  the  outre 
and  passe  personnel  of  those  present. 

5.  Your  friend  is  en  rapport  with  the  best  men  of  the  club. 
G.  "  I  was,  chez  moi,  inhaling  the  odeur  musquee  of  my 

scented  boudoir,  when  the  Prince  de  L.  entered." 

7.  It  was,  indeed,  with  the  captain,  a  dernier  ressort. 

8.  That  neighbor  of  yours  is,  par  excellence,  a  gentleman. 

9.  It  is  with  extreme  delicatesse  that  I  presume  to  present 
such  a  bagatelle. 

10.    The  parvenu  haut  ton  are  very  likely   to  assume  a 
hauteur  which  is  ridiculous. 


4  EXERCISES. 

Provincialisms, — Name  the  AMERICANISMS  in  tlie  following 
sentences,  and  give  their  origin: 

1.  Lake  Chautauqua  is  a  beautiful  sheet  of  water. 

2.  The  boss  concluded  to  build  a  stoop  at  the  front  door 
of  his  house. 

3.  Bayou  Teche  is  in  Louisiana. 

4.  Within  an  hour  after  the  levee  broke,  the  crevasse  was 
six  hundred  feet  wide. 

5.  Many  villages  have  a  calaboose,  which  is  used  for  a 
temporary  jail. 

6.  The  ranchero  built  his  ranch  near  the  chaparral. 

7.  A  congressional  caucus  was  something  new  in  our  po- 
litical history. 

8.  On  account  of  the  lawless  character  of  the  men  at  the 
diggings,  lynch-law  is  absolutely  necessary. 

9.  The  mass  meeting  wras  held  for  the  purpose  of  discuss- 
ing the  character  of  a  presidential  candidate. 

10.  The  old  gate  swung  back  and  forth  in  the  wind. 

11.  This  charge  will  offset  the  one  you  have  against  me. 

12.  Your  brother  is  a  very  talented  young  man. 

13.  You  make  a  requirement  that  can  not  be  met. 

14.  That  bank-bill  is  a  miserable  counterfeit. 

15.  Why  did  you  enter  that  bookstore  just  now? 

16.  The  old  shanty  in  the  bottom-land  is  roofed  with  clap- 
boards. 

17.  At  the  sea-board  the  climate  is  not  so  changeable  as 
here. 

18.  The  coasters  enjoyed  riding  down  that  side  hill  very 
much  indeed. 

19.  I  told  the  old  man  he  would  have  to  cave  in.     He 
then  flared  up  and  said  if  I  did  not  fork  over  what  I  owed 
him  he  w<ould  sue  me.     I  begged  him  to  hold  on  and  not 
take  on  so  about  so  trifling  a  matter.     I  never  once  let  on 
that   I  was  trying  to  stave  the  whole  thing  off.     He  was 
powerful   mad  for  a  time;    but  he  got  over  it,  and  I  w^as 
mighty  glad  to  have  the  fuss  settled. 


EXERCISES.  5 

20.  The  Yankee  always  says  I  guess,  where  the  Southerner 
says  I  reckon. 

21.  A  country  lad  who  is  green  and  ugly  may  turn  out  to 
be  a  clever  and  likely  man. 

22.  This  old  driver  was  remarkably  spry  for  one  of  his 
age.     He  mounted  to  his  seat  on  the  stage  with  the  agility 
of  a  boy. 

230  Don't  you  see  that  you  have  mussed  my  hair? 

24.  That  old  showman  is  the  prince  of  humbugs. 

25.  All  the  plunder  belonging  to  that  old  loafer  could  be 
carried  under  his  hat. 

26.  It  is  very  dangerous  fun  for  boys  to  throw  rocks  at  one 
another. 

45.  Obsolete  Words. — Show  why  the  italicized  words  in  the 
following  sentences  are  deficient  inform  and  clearness: 

1.  It  was  a  bvrdenous  load,  too  heavy  for  my  strength. 

2.  We  should  disburden  ourselves  of  our  griefs  and  dis- 
appointments as  soon  as  possible. 

3.  That  effort  forpassed  any  thing  you  ever  did  before. 

4.  The  immenseness  of  the  undertaking  will  justify  the 
expense. 

5.  Mr.  Jefferson  has  out-prized  all  his  previous  efforts. 
G.   Uptrain  a  child  in  the  way  he  should  go. 

Shoiv  ichy  the  italicized  icords  in  the  folloicing  sentences  are 
icorn  out  by  use : 

1.  The  floriage  of  plants  is  often  very  beautiful. 

2.  Flower,  of  which  we  make  bread,  is  now  spelled  flour. 

3.  One  of  Spenser's  heroes  was  hight  or  cleped  the  Eed 
Cross  Knight. 

4.  It  will  not  do  to  partialize  a  statement  when  the 
whole  truth  is  required. 

5.  The  partlet  that  ladies  wear  has  now  a  better  name. 

6.  Goldsmith's  village  preacher  was  u  passing  rich  with 
forty  pounds  a  year." 

7.  Erst  and  ichilom  were  once  synonyms. 


6  EXERCISES. 

Point  out  the  words  in  the  following  sentences  that  have 
been  dropped  by  changes  in  tlie  arts  and  employments: 

1.  His  Andrea  Ferrara  was  now  but  a  rusty  blade. 

2.  The  ariuorist  of  the  Middle  Ages  was  an  important 
individual. 

3.  The  fabric  was  made  of  a  fine  quality  of  florentine. 

4.  The  cohobation,  in  spite  of  the  alchemist's  pains,  was 
far  from  satisfactory. 

5.  The  fixation  of  gold  was  an  old  chemical  problem. 

6.  The  manciple  of  Chaucer's  time  was  a  great  deal  more 
shrewd  than  his  employers. 

7.  A  very  much  detested  character  in  his  day  was  the 
summoner  of  an  ecclesiastical  court. 

Name  the  words  in  the  following  sentences  that  have  been 
dropped  by  a  change  'of  knoivledge  and  refinement : 

1.  The  astrologer  of  Louis  XI.  of  France  was  his  con- 
stant adviser. 

2.  This  poor  quean  had  formerly  been  a  very  different 
person  from  what  she  was  then. 

3.  The  philosopher's  stone  was  an  elixir,  not  a  solid. 

4.  Guy    Mannering   cast   the   horoscope    of   the    infant 
Harry  Bertram. 

5.  The  Yandals  disappeared  under  the  influences  of  the 
Arabian  civilization, 

6.  The  brave  English  yeoman  distinguished  himself  at 
Cressy. 

Neologisms. — Prove  that  the  italicized  words  in  the  follow- 
ing sentences  violate  the  FIRST  RULE  OR  CONDITION  : 

1.  I  opine  that  you  are  seriously  mistaken. 

2.  There  is  but  a  slight  conne^ity  in  the  different  parts 
of  this  stupidly  fictions  narrative. 

3.  A  moslem  believes  the  Koran  to  be  infallible. 

4.  John  Brown  is  assuredly  a  moneyed  man. 

5.  Such  a  course  of  conduct  mu&t  eventuate  in  misfortune. 


EXERCISES.  7 

G.  The  desirability  of  this  situation  is  unquestioned. 

7.  My  friend,  I  approbate  your  unselfishness. 

8.  You  should  not  have  obligated  yourself  to  pay  that 
debt. 

9.  Such  an  affair  imports  more  than  you  suspect. 
10.  It  was  the  most  misaffected  mob  I  ever  saw. 

Prove  that  the  italicized  icords  in  the  following  sentences 
violate  the  SECOND  RULE  OR  CONDITION: 

1.  I  am  very  uncertain  whether  the  lecturer  is  a  good 
taUdst. 

2.  You  should  not  jeopardize  your  reputation  by  orating 
in  such  a  boyish  manner. 

3.  Your  cousin  is  a  better  walJcist  than  lapidary. 

4.  The  profaneness  of  that  spendthrift  is  remarkable. 

5.  Why  should  you  underlaud  so  praiseworthy  an  act? 

6.  Professor  Jones  enthused  his  audience  instanter. 

7.  Such  ungallantry  is  very  misbecoming  to  you. 

Prove  that  the  following  italicized  words  are  HYBRIDS: 

1.  Unitarians  do  not  believe  in  the  atonement. 

2.  When  the  bandage  \vas  removed  from  his  eyes  he  saw 
how  he  had  been  deceived. 

3.  The  cartage  from  the  river  is  done  in  heavy  wagons. 

4.  "  My  dear,"  is  a  term  of  endearment. 

5.  Your  forbearance  has  been  remarkable. 

6.  Political  'knavery  is  increasing  rapidly. 

7.  Oddity  of  appearance  is  sometimes  fashionable. 

8.  That  accident  was  a  great  hindrance  to  my  success. 

9.  How  peacefully  does  that  streamlet  wind  among  the 
trees! 

Show  why  the  italicized  irords  in  the  following  sentences 
violate  the  RULES  OF  EUPHONY  : 

1.  The  ingeniousness  and  delicateness  of  that  apparatus 
are  wonderful. 


8  EXERCISES. 

2.  Your  amiableness  of   disposition  contrasts  very  favor- 
ably with  your  friend's  peremptoriness  of  mariner. 

3.  It  was  a  kind  remembrancer  of  his  affection  for  me. 

4.  The  unsuccessfulness  of  the  enterprise  was  due  to  the 
carelessness  of  your  partner. 

5.  As   you  are   connected   with  the   signal   service  you 
should  talk  meteorologically. 

6.  You  should  not  act  derogatorily  to  your  dignity  under 
any  circumstances. 

7.  Mercinariness  of  disposition  overpowers  one's  better 
nature. 

8.  A  pre-reactionary  movement  just  now  would  do  good. 

9.  Johnson's  book  of  farriery  is  perfectly  trustworthy. 
10.   Although  your  maiden  aunt  acts   liolily  she  speaks 

sillily. 

46.  Moral  Dignity.  —Shoiv  why  the  italicized  icords  in  the 
following  sentences  violate  the  FIRST  TWO  RULES  : 

1.  "  Thy  Mly  is  thy  god." 

2.  a  Lord,  by  this  time  he  stinkeih,  for  he  hath  been  dead 
four  days." 

3.  If  that  precious  sinner  does  not  knuckle  and  get  down 
on  his  marrow -bones  in  a  humble  spirit,  he  will  certainly  be 
damned. 

4.  The  old  firm  of  Brown  and  Smith  have  stopped  pay- 
ment. 

5.  There  can  be  no  profit  to  the  wicked  in  driving  a  bar- 
gain with  God. 

6.  That  gentleman  was  the  Honorable  John  Morrissey. 

Point  out  the  COLLOQUIALISMS  in  ihe  following  sentences: 

1.  He  is  not  a  whit  better  than  he  should  be. 

2.  You  take  my  meaning,  do  you  not! 

3.  It  does  not  pay  to  curry  favor  with  the  rich. 

4.  The  young  man  was  compelled  to  shift  for  himself. 

5.  Any  one  can  see  that  with  half  an  eye. 

6.  The  work  has  all  been  chalked  out  for  him. 


EXERCISES.  9 

7.  Such  a  man  must  be  a  thorough-paced  knave. 

8.  Jt  is  really  wicked  to  set  friends  by  the  ears. 

9.  Don't  make  up  your  mind  in  a  hurry. 
10.  Such  low  people  are  all  of  a  piece. 

Point  out  the  SLANG  in  tlie  following  sentences: 

1.  That  young  lady  turned  up  her  nose  at  me. 

2.  The  country  voters  were  certainly  bull-dozed. 

3.  My  friend  did  not  tumble  to  the  notion  as  readily  as  I 
supposed  he  would. 

4.  You  were  so  sick   that   you   almost   passed  in  your 
checks. 

5.  First  wipe  oif  your  chin,  then  pull  down  your  vest. 

Point  out  the  CANT  in  the  following  sentences : 

1.  You  should  be  perfectly  upright  in  your  walk  and  con- 
versation. 

2.  That    large    amount   wras    finally    covered    into    the 
treasury. 

3.  I  do  not  now  keep  that  line  of  goods. 

4.  Jones  and  Co.  have  just  closed  out  their  winter  stock. 

5.  Your  kind  letter  was  duly  received  and  its  contents 
noted. 

6.  Please  find  enclosed  the  money  that  I  owe  you. 

7.  Miss  Brown's  technique  in  rendering  that  difficult  num- 
ber showed  how  perfectly  she  interpreted  the  composer. 

47,  Propriety. — Show  that  the  italicized  words  in  the  fol- 
lowing sentences  are  found  under  the  FIRST  SOURCE  OF 

INACCURACY : 

1.  Aristotle  was  a  man  of  rare  observance. 

2.  That  man's  last  estate  was  worst  than  the  first. 

3.  This  question  is  of  no  import  to  me. 

4.  In  disposition  Brown  wras  a  humanitarian,  not  a  mis- 
anthropist. 

5.  Your  action  was  veiy  humanly  performed. 

25. 


10  EXERCISES. 

6.  When  I  visit  you,  please  dispense  with  all  ceremonial. 

7.  Should  you  call  upon  that  speculator,  do  not  demean 
yourself  by  taking  part  in  his  dishonest  scheme. 

8.  William's  failure  was  due  entirely  to  his  old  habit  of 
neglect. 

9.  Negligence  of  duty  is  a  reproach  to  any  man. 

Show  that  the  italicized  ivords  in  the  following  sentences 
are  found  under  the  SECOND  SOURCE  OF  INACCURACY: 

1.  We  should  obey  the  doctrines  of  the  Bible. 

2.  All  obnoxious  teachings  should  be  prohibited. 

3.  The  country  roads  at  present  are  impracticable. 

4.  You  may  send  the  balance  of  the  goods  to  my  house. 

5.  The  work  is  progressing  rapidly. 

6.  The  discovery  of  gunpowder  changed  the  art  of  war. 

7.  I  am  sure  you  can  not  walk  ten  miles  together  without 
breaking  down. 

8.  According  to  my  verdict  your  friend  is  not  a  responsi- 
ble person. 

9.  I  think  I  can  make  it  appear  that  my  opinion  is 
correct. 

10.  The  obstacle  on  the  track  delayed  us  three  hours. 

In  the  italicized  words  of  the  following  sentences  show  in 
what  sense  they  are  EQUIVOCAL  : 

1.  We  have  a  right  to  destroy  mortal  or  noxious  weeds. 

2.  After  overlooking  the  manuscript  he  returned  it  to  the 
author. 

3.  You  surely  do  not  think  that  Brown  has  the  least 
right  to  the  place? 

4.  Walk  in  the  right  path  and  you  will  not  stumble. 

5.  Weigh  carefully  all  that  1  have  given  you. 

6.  Marie  me  well,  boy,  you  know  how  heedless  you  are. 

7.  Thomas  Carlyle  wrote  in  a  very  nervous  manner. 

8.  You  can  not  get  a  fresh  supply  because  of  its  rapid 
consumption. 


EXERCISES.  11 

9.  The  observation  of  your  friend  is  very  remarkable. 

10.  1  have  long  since  learned  to  like  nothing  but  what 

you  do. 

11.  That  event  occurred  a  little  while  after  the  reforma- 
tion of  Luther. 

12.  Your  son  is  the  most  hopeful  boy  I  know. 

13.  Mr.  Jones,  although  sixty  years  of  age,  is  the  youngest 
member  of  the  firm. 

Congruity.—  "It's  an  ill  wind  that  blows  nobody  any 
good,1'  is  much  better  English  than :  It  is  an  adverse  breeze 
that  blows  no  individual  any  benefit. 


CHAPTER  III. 

FIGURES  OF  SPEECH. 

52.  Synecdoche. — Analyze  the  following  italicized  figures 
of  synecdoche,  and  name  the  forms  to  ivhich  they  belong: 

1.  "Give  us  this  day  our  daily  bread." 

2.  "  I  love  not  man  the  less,  but  nature  more." 

3.  "  Though  Nestor  swear  the  jest  be  laughable." 

4.  "  Some  Cromwell  guiltless  of  his  country's  blood.'7 

5.  "  Stolen  waters  are  sweet,  and  bread  eaten  in  secret  is 
pleasant." 

6.  "  When  fortune  means  to  men  most  good 

She  looks  upon  them  with  a  threatening  eye? 
1.  Young  impudence  then  ran  upstairs. 

8.  "Ye  gods,  it  doth  amaze  me, 

A  man  of  such  feeble  temper  should 
So  get  the  start  of  the  majestic  world? 

9.  "  Oh,  why  should  the  spirit  of  mortal  be  proud  ?  " 

10.  "  The  valiant  never  taste  of  death  but  once." 

11.  "  Age  can  not  wither  her,  nor  custom  stale 

Her  infinite  variety? 


12  EXERCISES. 

12.  u  And  makes  us  lose  the  good  we  oft  might  win, 

By  fearing  to  attempt." 

13.  "Ay  me,  what  troubles  do  environ 

The  man  that  meddles  with  cold  iron? 

14.  "  With  many  a  stiff  thwack,  many  a  bang, 

Hard  crab-tree  and  old  iron  rang." 

15.  What  a  curse  the  love  of  gold  has  been  to  man. 

16.  "  Uneasy  lies  the  head  that  wears  a  crown." 

17.  The  world  looks  upon  him  as  a  genius. 

18.  "  Old  King  Cole  was  a  jolly  old  soul*" 

19.  The  keys  of  the  fort  were  surrendered  to  the  enemy. 

20.  "Spirits  are  not  finely  touched  but  to  fine  issues." 

21.  "7Tis  merry  in  hall,  when  beards  wag  all." 

22.  u  Thou  canst  not  say  I  did  it :  never  shake 

Thy  gory  locks  at  me !  " 

23.  "  Take  any  shape  but  that,  and  my  firm  nerves 

Shall  never  tremble." 

24.  "Alack!  there  lies  more  peril  in  thine  eye 

Than  twenty  of  their  swords." 

25.  "  He  hath  a  tear  for  pity,  and  a  hand 

Open  as  day  for  melting  charity." 

26.  "  Therefore  all  hearts  in  Jove  use  their  own  tongues ; 

Let  every  eye  negotiate  for  itself, 
And  nse  no  agent." 

53.  Metonymy. — Analyze  the  following  italicized  figures  of 
metonymy,  and  name  the  form  to  which  they  belong: 

1.  "  Some  Cupid  kills  with  arrows,  some  with  traps." 

2.  "A  time  there  was,  ere  England's  griefs  began, 

When  every  rood  of  ground  maintained  its  man." 

3.  Can  gray  hairs  make  folly  venerable? 

4.  "  And  bear  the  palm  alone." 

5.  My  friend,  while  on  his  journey,  was  overtaken  by  night. 

6.  We  all  heartily  enjoy  reading  the  poets. 

7.  That  quotation  is  to  be  found  in  Virgil. 

8.  Man  lives  by  the  sweat  of  his  face. 

9.  There  is  death  in  the  wine  cup. 


EXERCISES.  13 

10.  Those  who  live  by  the  sicord  shall  perish  by  the  sword. 

11.  AY  hat  land  could  be  so  barbarous  as  to  permit  this  in- 
justice ? 

12.  America  will  never  consent  to  this  outrage. 

13.  The  Middle  Ages  were  remarkable  for  nothing  except 
their  barbarism. 

14.  He  drank  the  fatal  glass  and  died. 

15.  She  melted  the  whole  theater  to  tears. 

16.  The  kettle  boils  cheerfully  upon  the  hearth. 

17.  "  He  hath  eaten  me  out  of  house  and  home." 

18.  "Who  follow  next  a  double  danger  bring, 

Not  only  hating  David  but  the  king." 

19.  "  I  do  the  most  that  friendship  can ; 

I  hate  the  viceroy,  love  the  man." 

20.  Youth  and  beauty  shall  be  laid  in  the  dust. 

21.  Our  ships  now  opened  upon  the  enemy. 

22.  "  He  shall  eat  up  the  nations,  his  enemies." 

23.  "Here  comes  the  lady: — Oh,  so  light  a  foot 

Will  ne'er  wear  out  the  everlasting  flint." 

24.  "Beauty's  ensign  yet 

Is  crimson  in  thy  lips   and  in  thy  cheeks, 
And  death's  pale  fag  is  not  advanced  there.'' 

25.  The  crescent  once  ruled  the  Mediterranean. 

26.  The  Little  Corporal,  sometimes  called  The  Corsican, 
died  in  exile. 

27.  His  sole  ambition  was  to  wear  the  purple. 

28.  "  Hands  that  the  rod  of  empire  might  have  swayed." 

29.  There  was  a  skirmish  of  wit  between  them. 

30.  "  Put  a  tongue 

In  every  wound  of  Caesar  that  should  move 
The  stones  of  Rome  to  rise  and  mutiny." 

31.  "  The  Niobe  of  nations,  there  she  stands." 

54.  Metaphor. — Analyze  the  italicized  metaphors  in  the  fol- 
lowing sentences,  and  name  the  kinds  to  which  they  be- 
long : 

1.  "  Let  there  be  gall  enough  in  thy  ink." 


14  EXERCISES. 

2.  "  If  the  ill  spirit  have  so  fair  a  house, 

Good  things  will  strive  to  dwell  in  it." 

3.  "  He  draweth  out  the  thread  of  his  verbosity  finer  than 
the  staple  of  his  argument." 

4.  "  My  cake  is  dough." 

5.  "  This  bodes  some  strange  eruption  to  our  state." 

6.  "  This  is  the  very  coinage  of  your  brain." 

7.  "  The  very  head  and  front  of  my  offending 

Hath  this  extent, — no  more." 

8.  "  Neither  cast  ye  your  pearls  before  swine? 

9.  "If  music  be  the  food  of  love,  play  on ; 

Give  me  excess  of  it." 

10.  "  Our  doubts  are  traitors? 

11.  "  For  sufferance  is  the  badge  of  all  our  tribe." 

12.  "  Her  rent  is  sorroiv,  and  her  income,  tears? 

13.  "  For  they  have  sown  the  wind,  and  they  shall  reap 
the  whirlwind? 

14.  Behold  the  great  sea-bird,  its  white  wings  just  dipping 
below  the  horizon. 

15.  There's  nothing  ill  can  dwell  in  such  a  temple. 
1G.  "  We  are  such  stuff 

As  dreams  are  made  of,  and  our  little  life 
Is  rounded  with  a  sleep? 

17.  "Why,  then,  the  world's  mine  oyster, 

Which  I  with  sword  will  open." 

18.  "They  say  there  is  divinity  in  odd  numbers." 

19.  "  Sits  the  wind  in  that  corner  f  " 

20.  "  I  hold  the  world  but  as  the  world,  Gratiano ; 

A  stage,  where  every  man  must  play  a  part, 
And  mine  a  sad  one." 

21.  "  Brevity  is  the  soul  of  wit." 

22.  "  Oh,  that  men  should  put  an  enemy  in  their  mouths 

To  steal  away  their  brains." 

23.  "  Ye  are  the  light  of  the  world." 

24.  "  All  flesh  is  grass? 

25.  "  Man  goeth  to  his  long  home? 

26.  "For  a  living  dog  is  better  than  a  dead  lion? 


EXERCISES.  15 

55.  Allegory. — 1.  Harshness  is  sometimes  commendable. 

"Tender-handed  stroke  a  nettle, 
And  it  stings  you  for  your  pains  5 
Grasp  it  like  a  man  of  mettle, 
And  it  soft  as  silk  remains. 
'T  is  the  same  with  common  natures : 
Use  them  kindly,  they  rebel ; 
But  be  rough  as  nutmeg  graters, 
And  the  rogues  obey  you  well." 

2.  The  brave  are  always  rewarded. 

"  By  fairy  hands  their  knell  is  rung  ; 
By  forms  unseen  their  dirge  is  sung; 
There  Honor  comes,  a  pilgrim  gray, 
To  bless  the  turf  that  wraps  their  clay ; 
And  Freedom  shall  awhile  repair, 
To  dwell  a  weeping  hermit  there." 

56.  Personification. — Point  out  the  figures  of  personifica- 
tion in  the  following  sentences: 

1.  "  Sport  that  wrinkled  Care  deiides, 

And  Laughter  holding  both  his  sides." 

2.  "  For  pity  melts  the  mind  to  love." 

3.  "  And  virtue  is  her  own  reward." 

4.  "  To  frown  at  pleasure  and  to  smile  at  pain." 

5.  "Final  rain  fiercely  drives 

fHer  ploughshare  o'er  creation." 

6.  "Come,  gentle  Spring!  ethereal  Mildness,  come!" 

7.  "  Base  envy  withers  at  another's  joy, 

And  hates  that  excellence  it  can  not  reach." 

8.  "And  Spring  comes  slowly  up  this  way." 

9.  "But  who  can  paint 

Like  Nature?     Can  imagination  boast 
Amid  its  gay  creation  hues  like  these?" 
10.  "Amid  the  roses  fierce  Repentance  rears 
Her  snaky  crest." 


16  EXERCISES. 

57.  Ideal  Presence. — Present  tense  for  past  or  future. 

1.  "  The  curfew  tolls  the  knell  of  parting  day, 

The  lowing  herd  winds  slowly  o'er  the  lea, 
The  plowman  homeward  plods  his  weary  way, 
And  leaves  the  world  to  darkness  and  to  me." 

2.  "  From  Marl  borough's  eyes  the  tears  of  dotage  flow, 

And  Swift  expires  a  driveler  and  a  show." 

Vision. 

1.  "  He  wales  a  portion  with  judicious  care : 

And,  'Let  us  worship  God!J  he  says  with  solemn 
air." 

2.  «  List  to  that  funereal  bell. 

It  is  tolling,  alas,  a  living  man's  knell ! 
And  see !  from  forth  that  opening  door 
They  come — he  steps  that  threshold  o'er 
Who  ne'er  shall  tread  upon  threshold  more." 

Apostrophe. 

1.  "These,  as  they  change,  Almighty  Father!  these 

Are  but  the  varied  God." 

2.  "  Oh,  gentle  sleep, 

Nature's  soft  nurse,  how  I  have  frighted  thee." 

3.  "  Love  !  thou  art  not  king  alone : 

Both  slave  and  king  thou  art." 

4.  "  <  Oh  heaven,'  he  cried,  <  my  bleeding  country  save ! 

Is  there  no  hand  on  high  to  shield  the  brave ! ? " 

5.  "  Oh  bounteous  peace ! 

Sweet  union  of  a  state !  what  else  but  thou 
Gives  safety,  strength,  and  glory  to  a  people?" 

Sermocination. 

1.  •'  'T  is  the  voice  of  the  sluggard ;  I  heard  him  complain, 

You  have  waked  me  too  soon,  I  must  slumber  again." 

2.  "  Comes  a  still  voice :   Yet  a  few  days,  and  thou 

The  all-beholding  sun  shall  see  no  more 
In  all  his  course? 


EXERCISES.  17 

3.  "  And  whispers  are  heard  full  of  nature  and  truth, 
Saying,  <- Don't  you  remember?" 

58.  Simile.  —Point  out  and  prove  the  similes  in  the  following 
sentences  : 

1.  "True  as  the  dial  to  the  sun, 

Although  it  be  not  sinned  upon.7* 

2.  "  7T  is  with  our  judgments  as  our  watches  ;  none 

Go  just  alike,  yet  each  believes  his  own." 

3.  "  Cruel  as  death,  and  hungry  as  the  grave." 

4.  "A  needless  Alexandrine  ends  the  song, 

That,  like  a  wounded  snake,  drags  its  slow  length 
along." 

5.  "Her  cap,  far  whiter  than  the  driven  snow." 

59.  Allusions. — Point  out  and  prove  the  allusions  in  the 
following  sentences  : 

1.  The  Spanish  Armada  found  a  Salamis  in  the  English 
Channel. 

2.  "  Woods  that  wave  o'er  Delphi's  steep, 

Isles  that  crown  the  ^Egean  deep, 
Fields  that  cool  Ilissus  lares." 

3.  Why  did  she  greet  him  with  a  traitor's  kiss? 

4.  Shorn  of  his  locks,  he  is  as  helpless  as  a  child. 

5.  It  was  a  prize  that  Jason  would  have  coveted. 

60.  Epithets.—  Analyze  the  italicized  epithets  in  the  follow- 
ing sentences: 

1.  This  was  the  happiest  day  of  my  life. 

2.  The  Elizabethan  period  was  a  very  learned  one. 

3.  The  thirsty  ground  drinks  up  the  rain. 

4.  What  a  melancholy  disaster  it  was. 

5.  "  O'er  Idalia's  velvet  green." 

6.  "The  plowman  homeward  plods  his  weary  way." 

7.  "  And  all  the  air  a  solemn  stillness  holds." 

8.  "And  drowsy  tinklings  lull  the  distant  folds." 

9.  "Xo  more  shall  rouse  them  from  their  lowly  bed." 
E.  H,  R.-~ 2. 


18  EXERCISES. 

10.  "  Or  climb  his  knees,  the  envied  kiss  to  share." 

11.  "  Can  Honor's  voice  provoke  the  silent  dust  ? 

Or  Flattery  soothe  the  dull,  cold  ear  of  Death?" 

12.  u  The  struggling  pangs  of  conscious  truth  to  hide." 

13.  "  He  bears  his  blushing  honors  gracefully." 

14.  "  Streaming  grief  his  cheek  bedewed." 

15.  "Though  fanned  by  Conquest's  crimson  wing." 


CHAPTEE  IV. 

THE  SENTENCE. 

66.  Loose  and  Periodic  Sentences. — Divide  the  following 
LOOSE  sentence  into  three  sentences : 

1.  "The  knight  walks  down  from  his  seat  in  the  chancel 
between  a  double  row  of  his  tenants,  that  stand  bowing  to 
him  on  each  side ;  and  every  now  and  then  inquires  how  such 
an  one's  wife,  or  mother,  or  son,  or  father  do,  whom  he  does 
not  see  at  church;  which  is  understood  as  a  secret  reprimand 
to  the  person  that  is  absent." 

Divide  the  folio  icing  into  five  sentences : 

2.  "  My  friend,  Sir  Eoger,  has  often  told  me,  with  a  good 
deal  of  mirth,  that  at  his  first  coining  to  his  estate,  he  found 
three  parts  of  his  house  altogether  useless ;  that  the  best  room 
in  it  had  the  reputation  of  being  haunted,  and  by  that  means 
was  locked  up;    that  noises  had    been    heard   in    his   long 
gallery,  so  that  he  could  not  get  a  servant  to  enter  it  after 
eight  o'clock  at  night ;  that  the  door  of  one  of  the  chambers 
was  nailed  up  because  there  went  a  story  in  the  family  that  a 
butler  had   formerly   hanged  himself   in    it;    and    that    his 
mother,  who  lived  to  a  great  age,  had  shut  up  half  the  rooms 
in   the  house,   in   which   either    her   husband,   a    son,   or  a 
daughter  had  died." 


EXERCISES.  19 

Change  thefolloiving  into  PERIODIC  sentences: 

3.  "How  many  honest  minds  are  iilled  with  uncharitable 
and  barbarous  notions,  out  of  their  zeal  for  the  public  good!" 

4.  "Had  not  exercise  been  absolutely  necessary  for  our 
well-being,  nature  would  not  have  made  the  body  so  proper 
for  it." 

5.  "There  are   some  opinions   in   which  a  man  should 
stand  neuter,  without  engaging  his  assent  to  one  side  or  the 
other." 

G.  "I  should  not  have  been  thus  particular  upon  these 
ridiculous  horrors,  did  I  not  find  them  so  very  much  prevail 
in  all  parts  of  the  country." 

Change  the  following  into  LOOSE  sentences: 

7.  "In  military  commanders  and  soldiers,  vain  glory  is 
an  essential  point." 

8.  "When  such  an  inflexible  integrity  is  a  little  softened 
and  qualified  by  the  rules  of  conversation  and  good  breeding, 
there  is  not  a  more  shining  virtue  in  the  whole  catalogue  of 
social  duties." 

9.  "Were  I  not  supported  by  so  great  an  authority  as 
that  of  Mr.  Dryden,  I  should  not  venture  to  observe  that  the 
taste  of  most  of  our  English  poets,  as  well  as  readers,  is  ex- 
tremely Gothic." 

10.  "Now,  because  our  inward  passions  and  inclinations 
can  never  make  themselves  visible,  it  is  impossible  for  a  jeal- 
ous man  to  be  thoroughly  cured  of  his  suspicions." 

Change  each  of  the  following  into  three  LOOSE  sentences, 
and  then  combine  them  into  PERIODIC  sentences: 

11.  "  I  might  here  entertain  my  reader  with  historical  re- 
marks on  this  idle  and  profligate  people,  who  infest  all  the 
countries  of  Europe,  and  live  in  the  midst  of  governments  in 
a  kind  of  commonwealth  by  themselves." 

12.  "  It  is  indeed  high  time  for  me  to  leave  the  country, 
since  I  find  the  whole  neighborhood  begin  to  grow  very  in- 


20  EXERCISES. 

quisitive  after  my  name  and  character;  my  love  of  solitude, 
taciturnity,  and  particular  way  of  life,  having  raised  a  great 
curiosity  in  all  these  parts." 

Change  the  following  into  a  perfect  PERIODIC  sentence,  and 
then  into  a  LOOSE  sentence: 

13.  "When  a  man  has  but  a  little  stock  to  improve,  and 
has  opportunity  of  turning  it  all  to  good  account,  what  shall 
we  think  of  him  if  he  suffers  nineteen  parts  of  it  to  lie  dead, 
and  perhaps  employs  even  the  twentieth  part  to  his  ruin  or 
disadvantage  ?  w 

69.  Correctness.—  Principal  rules  for  the  use  of  PRONOUNS: 

1.  The  personal  pronoun  agrees  with  its  antecedent  or  an- 
tecedents in  person,  number,  and  gender. 

2.  When  no  gender  is  expressed,  the  personal  is  generally 
masculine. 

3.  When  the  pronoun  denotes  possession,  and  when  placed 
before  a  participle  used  as  a  noun,  it  must  be  in  the  posses- 
sive case. 

4.  The  relative  that  is  used  after  who ;  after  an  adjective 
in  the  superlative ;  after  all,  same,  and  very;  after  collective 
nouns,  unless  the  gender  is  expressed ;  and  when  the  antece- 
dents are  both  a  person  and  a  thing. 

5.  The  demonstratives  this  and  that   agree  with  their 
nouns  in  number. 

6.  When  more  than  two  things  are  referred  to,  use  any, 
all,  or  none,  instead  of  either  and  neither. 

7.  Pronouns  should  not  be  used  ambiguously. 

Principal  rules  for  the  use  of  the  VERB: 

1.  The  verb  agrees  with  its  subject  or  subjects  in  person 
and  number. 

2.  The  present  tense  is  used  with  an  assertion  that  is 
always  true;    and  often  after  as  soon  as,  before,  till,  and 
when,  if  followed  by  the  future  tense. 


EXERCISES.  21 

3.  The  subjunctive  mode  is  used  when  both  doubt  and 
futurity  arc  expressed  or  implied. 

4.  The  sign  to,  of  the  present  infinitive,  is  omitted  after 
bid,  dare,  feel,  hear,  let,  make,  need,  see,  in  the  active  voice ; 
sometimes   after    behold,    have,    help,   observe,  please,   and 
icatch;  also  after  let  in  the  passive  voice. 

5.  An  adverb  should  not  be  placed  between  the  sign  of 
the  present  infinitive  and  the  verb. 

6.  The  past  participle  should  not  be  used  for  the  past 
tense. 

7.  Different  forms  of  the  verb  should  be  avoided  in  the 
same  construction. 

Principal  rules  for  the  use  of  the  ADJECTIVE  : 

1.  When  the  same  article  applies  to  each  of  a  succession 
of  nouns  or  adjectives,  it  is  placed  before  the  first  adjective  or 
noun;    when  it  does  not  so  apply,  each  adjective  or  noun 
should  have  its  own  article. 

2.  The  noun  that  does  not  admit  an  article  is  placed  first. 

3.  The  comparative  degree,  except  of  defectives,  requires 
than  after  it. 

4.  The  comparative  degree  is  used  for  two  objects  ^    the 
superlative,  for  more  than  two. 

5.  Adjectives  of  no  comparison  should  not  be  compared. 

Principal  rules  for  the  use  of  the  ADVERB: 

1.  The  adverb  is  generally   placed  before  the  adjective, 
participle,  or  adverb  that  it  modifies;  after  the  verb  in  the 
present  and  past  indicative  and  subjunctive;  after  the  auxil- 
iary when  there  is  but  one;    and  after  the  last  auxiliary 
when  there  are  two  or  more  auxiliaries. 

2.  Always,  never,  often,  and  sometimes  generally  precede 
the  verb. 

3.  Only,  being  both  an  adjective  and  adverb,  is  generally 
placed  next  to  the  word  it  modifies. 

4.  Adverbs  should  not  be  used  as  adjectives. 


22  EXERCISES. 

Rule  for  the  position  of  the  PREPOSITION  : 

Prepositions  should  be  placed  before  their  objectives  and  as 
near  the  words  to  which  they  relate  as  possible. 

70.  Unity. — Show  why  the  folloiving  sentences  are  defective 
in  unity  7  and  correct  them: 

1.  "  London,  which  is  a  very  dirty  city,  has  a  population 
of  two  millions." 

2.  "  The  lion  is  a  noble  animal,  and  has  been  known  to 
live  fifty  years  in  confinement." 

3.  u  Thus  with  her  few  notes  does  nature  ring  the  changes 
of  the  seasons ;  which  we  admire,  and  endeavoring  to  imitate 
find  but  a  shadowy  success." 

4.  "Dr.   Kane   described   the  Arctic  silence  as  almost 
dreadful,  and  one  day  at  dinner,  while  Thackeray  was  quietly 
smoking,  and  Kane  was  fresh  from  his  travels,  lie  told  them 
a  story  of  a  sailor  reading  Peridennis." 

5.  u  The  vessel  made  for  the  shore,  and   the  passengers 
soon  crowded  into  the  boats,  and  reached  the  beech  in  safety, 
where  the  inhabitants  received  them  with  the  utmost  kind- 
ness, and  a  shelter  was  provided  for  them." 

6.  "  Their  march  was  through  an  uncultivated  country, 
whose  savage  inhabitants  fared  hardly,  having  no  other  riches 
than  a  breed  of  lean  sheep,  whose  flesh  was  rank  and  un- 
savory, by  reason  of  their  continued  feeding  upon  sea-fish." 

7.  "My  friend  Will  Honeycomb,  who  was  so  unmerci- 
fully witty  upon  the  women,  in  a  couple  of  letters  which  I 
lately  communicated  to  the  public,  has  given  the  ladies  ample 
satisfaction  by  marrying  a  farmer's  daughter ;  a  piece  of  news 
which  came  to  our  club  by  the  last  post." 

8.  "  There  is  to  be  a  grand  wedding  next  week,  to  which 
we  are  all  to  be  invited;  so  I  hear,  at  least.5' 

9.  "They  were  summoned  occasionally  by  their  kings, 
when  compelled  by  their  wants  and  by  their  foes  to  have  re- 
course to  their  aid." 

10.    "It  is  folly  to  pretend  to  arm  ourselves  against  the 


EXERCISES.  23 

accidents  of  life,  by  heaping  up  treasures,  which  nothing  can 
protect  us  against,  but  the  good  providence  of  our  Heavenly 
Father." 

11.  "  Mind  your  own  business  "  is  an  old  proverb  (indeed, 
all  proverbs  seem  to  be  old)  which   should   be  more  strictly 
followed. 

12.  "  She  said  if  she  could  find  some  one  (even  if  she 
should  not  be  old  enough  and  competent  to  do  the  work  re- 
quired) for  a  few  weeks,  she  should  be  thankful." 

13.  Haydn  (who  was  the  son  of  a  poor  wheelwright,  and 
is  best  known  to  us  by  a  noble  oratorio  called  "The  Cre- 
ation," which  he  is  said  to  have  composed  after  a  season  of 
solemn  prayer  for  divine   assistance),   wrote  fine  pieces   of 
music  when  he  was  no  more  than  ten  years  old. 

71.  Clearness. — SJww  icliy  the  following  sentences  are  de- 
ficient in  clearness: 

1.  Many  men  have  failed  in  executing  important  works, 
that  possessed  great  strength  of  character. 

2.  "When   we   had   done   eating  ourselves,  the  knight 
called  a  waiter  to  him,  and  bid  him  carry  the  remainder  to 
the  waterman  that  had  but  one  leg." 

3.  "What  I  had  an  opportunity  of  mentioning  to  my 
friend,   some   time   ago,    in    conversation,   was   not   a   new 
thought." 

4.  "As  it  is  necessary  to  have  the  head  clear  as  well  as 
the  complexion,  to  be  perfect  in  this  part  of  learning,  I  rarely 
mingle   with   the   men,   but    frequent    the   tea-tables   of  the 
ladies." 

5.  "For  my  part,  1  could  heartily  wish  that  all  honest 
men  would  enter  into  an  association  for  the  support  of  one 
another  against  the  endeavors  of  those  whom  they  ought  to 
look  upon  as  their  common  enemies,  whatever  side  they  may 
belong  to." 

6.  "  That  excellent  man,  entertaining  his  friends,  a  little 
before  he  drank  the  bowl  of  poison,  with  a  discourse  upon  the 


24  EXERCISES. 

immortality  of  the  soul,  at  his  entering  upon  it,  says,  that  he 
does  not  believe  any  the  most  comic  genius  can  censure  him 
for  talking  upon  such  a  subject  at  such  a  time." 

7.  "He  not  only  owns  this  farm,  but  the  adjoining  one 
also." 

8.  "  They  were  persons  of  moderate  intellects,  even  before 
they  were  impaired  by  their  passions." 

9.  "  The  clerk  told  his  employer  that,  whatever  he  did,  he 
could  not  please  him." 

10.  "What  cruelties  and  outrages  would  they  not  commit 
against  men  of   an  adverse  party,  whom  they  would   honor 
and  esteem  if,  instead  of  considering  them  as  they  are  repre- 
sented, they  knew  them  as  they  are." 

11.  "  One  may  have  an  air  which  proceeds  from  a  just 
sufficiency  and  knowledge  of  the  matter  before  him,  which 
may  naturally  produce  some  motions  of  his  head  and  body, 
which  might  become  the  bench  better  than  the  bar." 

12.  "  Even  if  it  were  attended  with  extenuating  circum- 
stances, such  conduct  would  deserve  severe  reprobation,  and 
it  is  the  more  called  for  because  it  would  seem  that  it  was 
the  intention  of  the  author  of  the  crime,  in  perpetrating  it,  to 
inflict  all  the  misery  that  was  possible  upon  his  victim." 

13.  "  Had  I  but  served  my  God  with  half  the  zeal 

I  served  my  king,  he  would  not  in  mine  age 
Have  left  me  naked  to  mine  enemies." 

14.  "The  laws  of  nature  are  truly  what  my  lord  Bacon 
styles  his  aphorisms,  laws  of  laws.     Civil  laws  are  always  im- 
perfect, and  often  false  deductions  from  them  or  applications 
of  them  j  nay,  they  stand  in  many  instances  in  direct  opposi- 
tion to  them." 

15.  "Knowing  that  you  were  my  old  masters  good  friend, 
I  could  not  forbear  sending  you  the  melancholy  news  of  his 
death,  which  has  afflicted  the  whole  country,  as  well  as  his 
poor  servants,  who  loved  him,  I  may  say,  better  than  we  did 
our  lives." 

16.  "Few  English  heroes  surpass  Edward  Third  or  the 
Black  Prince." 


EXERCISES.  25 

17.  "  At  least  my  own  private  letters  leave  room  for  a  pol- 
itician, well  versed  in  matters  of  this  nature,  to  suspect  as 
much  as  a  penetrating'  friend  of  mine  tells  me." 

18.  "  I  beseech  you,  sir,  to  inform  these  fellows  that  they 
have  not  the  spleen,  because  they  can  not  talk  without  the 
help  of  a  glass." 

19.  "  Pleasure  and  excitement  had  more  attractions  for  him 
than  his  friend,  and  the  two  companions  became  gradually 
estranged." 

20.  u  Never  let  the  glory  of  our  nation,  who  made  France 
tremble,  be  calumniated  in  so  impudent  a  manner." 

21.  a  It  must  indeed  be  confessed  that  a  lampoon  or  satire 
do  not  carry  in  them  robbery  or  murder;    but  at  the  same 
time,  how  many  are  there  that  would  not  rather  lose  a  con- 
siderable sum  of  money,  or  even  life  itself,  than  be  set  up  as 
a  mark  of  infamy  and  derision?  and  in  the  same  case  a  man 
should  consider  that  an  injury  is  not  to  be  measured  by  the 
notions  of  him  that  gives,  but  of  him  that  receives  it." 

22.  "It  is  not  an  unusual  occurrence  to  avoid  unforeseen 
contingencies  by  a  not  unimportant  display  of  caution." 

72.  Precision. — Remove  the  TAUTOLOGY  from  the  following 

sentences : 

1.  I  must  acknowledge  and  confess  that  I  do  not  ac- 
quiesce and  rest  satisfied  with  the  bounds  and  limits  you  have 
given  me. 

2.  I  must  advise  and  counsel  you  against  the  corruption 
and  degeneracy  of  political  life. 

3.  The  effects  and  consequences  of  the  undertaking  have 
filled  me  with  fears  and  apprehensions. 

4.  It  was  in  a  friendly  and  amicable  spirit  that  he  was 
told  of  the  confused  and  disordered  condition  of  his  affairs. 

5.  In  a  very  positive  and  peremptory  manner  he  said: 
"  Why  did  you  return  again  ?  " 

Show  why  the  following  TAUTOLOGICAL  EXPRESSIONS  may 
be  ALLOWABLE: 
1.  "  The  Lord  is  my  light  and  my  salvation? 


26  EXERCISES. 

2.  "  Then  answered  Peter,  and  said  unto  Jesus,  Lord,  it 
is  good  for  us  to  be  here." 

3.  "  Let  them  be  confounded  and  put  to  shame  that  seek 
after  my  soul." 

4.  "Lord,  I  have  loved  the  habitation  of  thine  house, 
and  the  place  where  thine  honor  dwelleth." 

5.  "  Teach  me  thy  way,  O  Lord,  and  lead  me  in  a  plain 
path:7 

Pleonasm. — Remove  the  pleonasm  from  each  of  the  follow- 
ing sentences: 

1.  Your  brother  assured  me  that  he  was  not  at  all  the 
first  aggressor. 

2.  The  subject-matter  of  the  essay  was  highly  praised. 

3.  At  the  latter  end  of  the  day  the  reporter  secured  a 
personal  interview  with  the  senator. 

4.  The  old  veteran   denounced  the  false  traitor  in  the 
harshest  language. 

5.  When  that  widow  woman's  husband  died  she  fainted 
away  from  grief. 

6.  After  he  had  filled  the  glass  full  he  substituted  it  in 
the  place  of  another. 

7.  Parson  Adams,  who  is  a  very  just  and  upright  man,  is 
the  person  best  calculated  of  all  others  to  advise  you. 

8.  Throughout  the  whole  of  the  conversation  they  never 
referred  to  the  place  where  they  both  met  the  last  time. 

9.  You  need  not  mention  again  that  you  read  the  lesson 
twice  over. 

10.  Most  patent  medicines  are  a  universal  panacea. 

8how  why  the  following  PLEONASTIC  FORMS  may  be  ADMIS- 
SIBLE: 

1.  High  in  the  azure  heaven  behold  the  sun! 

2.  "  Roll  on,  silver  moon,  guide  the  traveler  on  his  way.7* 

3.  "  The  blushing  morn  comes  peeping  over  the  hills." 

4.  His  home  is  on  a  sea-girt  isle. 


EXERCISES.  27 

5.  "God  covereth  the  heavens  above  with  clouds.77 
G.  "  Consider  the  lilies  of  the  field,  how  they  grow." 
7.  "  The  birds  of  the  air  have  nests,  but  the  Son  of  man 
hath  not  where  to  lay  his  head.'7 

Verbosity. — Correct  the  CIRCUMLOCUTION  in  the  following 
sentences  : 

1.  "  Neither  is  any  condition  more  honorable  in  the  sight 
of  God  than  another,  otherwise  he  would  be  a  respecter  of 
persons,  which  he  assures  us  he  is  not.77 

2.  "  In  the  day  thou  eatest  thereof  thou  shalt  surely  die.77 

3.  "Those  who  are  habitually  silent  by  disposition,  and 
morose,  are  less  liable  to  the  fault  of  exaggerating  than  those 
who  are  habitually  fond  of  talking,  and  of  a  pleasant  dispo- 
sition.77 

4.  "  This  author  surpassed  all  those  who  were  living  at 
the  same  time  with  him  in  the  forcible  manner  in  which  he 
could  address  an  appeal  to  the  popular  sympathy.77 

5.  "  Upon  entering  the  rustic  place  of  entertainment  to 
partake  of  some  refreshment,  my  nerves  were  horrified  by 
lighting  on   a  number  of  boisterous   individuals  who  were 
singing  some  species  of  harvest  song,  and  simultaneously  im- 
bibing that   cup,   which,  if  it  cheers,   also  inebriates;    and 
when,    banished    from    their   society    by    the   fumes    of   the 
fragrant  weed,  I  wended  my  way  to  the  apartment  which  ad- 
joined the  one  in  which  I  had  hoped  to  rest  my  weary  limbs, 
I  found  an  interesting  assortment  of  the  fairer  sex,  who  were 
holding  a  separate  confabulation  apart  from   the  revels   of 
their  rougher  spouses.77 

Paraphrase, — Condense    the  following   paraphrastic   sen- 
tences : 

1.  "  He  lifted  up  his  voice  and  wept.77 

2.  "  He  opened  his  mouth  and  he  taught  them.77 

3.  That  plan  of  conduct  is  the  most  certain  of  success 
which  is  based  upon  a  rigid  adherence  to  honesty. 


EXERCISES. 

4.  Truth   often   impresses   a  person   more  forcibly   than 
fiction. 

5.  Every  misfortune  of  life  almost  always  results  in  benefit. 

6.  Instead  of  treating  our  enemies  as  they  desire  to  treat 
us,  we  should,  in  this  particular,  rather  follow  the  teachings 
of  Christ. 

7.  Necessity  often  leads  a  person  to  perform  actions  which 
otherwise  might  never  have  been  conceived. 

8.  Persistent  labor  of  head  and  hand  will  lead  to  results 
that  appear  incredible  because  otherwise  impossible. 

9.  Misfortunes  often  come  upon  us  in  such  rapid  succes- 
Bion  as  to  overpower  all  our  faculties. 

10.  It  is  a  wise  provision  of  nature  that  the  comforts,  even 
the  necessities  of  life,  can  not  be  obtained  without  consider- 
able exertion. 

73.  Energy. — The  English  idiom  is  as  follows:  (1)  The  ad- 
jective or  adjectives  belonging  to  the  subject ;  (2)  The  sub- 
ject; (3)  The  adjective  phrase  or  dependent  clause;  (4) 
The  verb ;  (5)  The  adverb ;  (6)  The  adverbial  phrase  or 
clause;  (7)  The  adjective  or  adjectives  belonging  to  the 
object;  (8)  The  object;  (9)  The  adjective  phrase  or  de- 
pendent clause  belonging  to  the  object. 

Use  suck  INVERSIONS  in  the  folloicing  sentences  as  will 
strengthen  their  expression: 

1.  Diana  of  the  Ephesians  is  great. 

2.  He  that  cometh  in  the  name  of  the  Lord  is  blessed. 

3.  I  have  no  silver  and  gold,  but  I  give  thee  such  as  I 
have. 

4.  Consider  how  the  lilies  of  the  field  grow;  they  do  not 
toil. 

5.  Whatever  may  happen,  I  must  go. 

6.  The  great  city,  Babylon,  is  fallen,  fallen. 

7.  Where  are  your  fathers,  and  do  the  prophets  live  for- 
ever ? 

8.  I  declare  him  unto  you  whom  ye  ignorantly  worship. 


EXERCISES.  29 

• 

9.  They  were  so  deeply  impressed  with  a  sense  of  their 
wrongs  that  they  would  not  even  accept  life  from  their  op- 
pressors. 

10.  I  am  now  ready  to  stake  upon  it  all  that  I  have,  all 
that  I  am,  and  all  that  I  hope  to  be. 

74,  Melody. — Point  out  the  offenses  against  melody  in  the 
following  sentences : 

1.  "  The  hosts  stood  still,  in  silent  wonder  fixed." 

2.  "  After  the  most  straitest  sect  of  our  religion  I  lived  a 
pharisee." 

3.  It  is  impossible  continually  to  be  at  work. 

4.  If  I  re-enter  the   corporation   I   will   thoroughly  co- 
operate with  you. 

5.  Though  you  may  often  open  your  mouth,  you  can  noij 
re-enforce  the  remarks  of  your  friend. 

6.  Such  straining  after  a  fine  effect  can  not  fail  to  fatigue 
the  ear. 

7.  As  far  as  respects  the  affairs  of  this  world,  I  am  per- 
fectly resigned. 

8.  Tranquillity,  regularity,  and  magnanimity  reside  with 
the  religious  and  resigned  man. 

9.  I  have  just  completed  an  arrangement  for  forwarding 
fourteen  machines. 

10.  There  are  two  tunes  that  I  do  not  like  to  listen  to. 

11.  "  There  are  no  persons,  or  if  there  are  any,  assuredly 
they  are  few  in  number,  who  have  not,  at  some  time  of  life, 
either  directly  or  indirectly,  with  or  without  consciousness  on 
their  part,   been  of  service  to   their  fellow  creatures,  or  at 
least  a  portion  of  them," 

12.  A  man  should  not  even  look  at,  certainly  not  take  part 
in  a  prize-fight. 

13.  It  is  an  indisputable  belief,  and  one  which  we  firmly 
rely  on. 

14.  "  Whether  a   choice   altogether   unexceptionable    has 
been  made  in  any  country,  seems  doubtful." 


30  EXERCISES. 

r 

15.  "  Gentleness  ought  to  diffuse  itself  over  our  whole  be- 
havior, to  form  our  address,  and  to  regulate  our  speech.77 

16.  "  Charity  breathes  long  suffering  to  our  enemies,  court- 
esy to  strangers,  habitual  kindness  towards  friends.77 

17.  "  It  was  a  practice  which  no  one  knew  the  origin  of.77 

18.  u  The  regular  tenor  of  a  virtuous  and  pious  life  will 
prove  the  best  preparation  for  immortality,  for  old  age,  and 
death.77 

19.  A  prudent  general  will  most  generally  avoid  a  general 
engagement. 

20.  After  reaching  the  outlook  on  the  summit,  you  can 
look  over  a  large  plain,  on  which  you  can  plainly  see  the 
little  village  that  you  left  two  hours  before. 


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